Shon Powers' Civil War Blog

April's Main Points.

2009-04-24T20:38:00.000-06:00

The main points of the Civil War in April;

April 3, 1865; Richmond falls to Union troops.

April 6-7, 1862; Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing, TN)

April 9, 1865: Confederate Armyof Northern Virginia surrenders at Appomattox Courthouse, VA

April 13, 1865: President Lincoln assassiated, dies the next day.

I share a birthday

2009-02-12T02:13:00.001-06:00

I share a birthday with Union Major General Winfield Scott Hancock (February 14), II Corps Commander.

Noted birthday

2009-02-12T02:02:00.004-06:00

Today is the 200th birthday of President Abraham Lincoln.

That is something to celebrate.

Born on the frontier.
No more than a few years education.
Taught himself the law.
Became a circuit lawyer.
Elected to the Illinois Legislature.
Served a term in the US Congress.
Failed to be elected Senator.
Elected the 16th President.
Saw his nation at war with each other.
Took great risks.
Became the driving force for freeing the slaves.
Became a martyr as victory was achieved.

Listed as one of the 5 greatest Presidents.

Born 200 years ago today.

Remembering February 1, 1861

2009-02-03T00:52:00.002-06:00

Texas seceded on February 1, 1861, one of the original group of states to do so.

New Year

2009-01-16T08:47:00.003-06:00

2009 is here, and I look forward to seeing a few anniversaries that will take place this year;

Abrahan Lincoln's 200th Birthday will be observed in February.

Robert E Lee 202nd Birthday will also be noted.

There wll also be several 144th anniversaries:

Sherman's Carolinas Campaign
The Fall of Charleston, SC
The destruction of Columbia, SC
The epic voyage of CSS Shenandoah
The last-ditch effort by the CSA to enlist African-Americans in its ranks (too little too late)
The Fall of Wilmington, NC
The destruction of Confederate defenses in the Shenandoah Valley
The establishing of the Freedmen's Bureau
The Battle of Averasboro, NC
The Battle of Bentonville, NC
The Battle of Fort Steadman, VA
The Battle of Five Forks, VA
The Battle of Selma, AL
The Fall of Petersburg, VA
The Fall of Richmond and the flight of the Confederate Government
The Surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia
The Assassination of President Lincoln
The Surrender of the Army of Tennessee
The Capture of Jefferson Davis
The Battle of Palmito Ranch, TX
The Passage of the 13th Amendment, outlawing Slavery
The Start of Reconstruction

Good anniversaries this year, still looking forward to the 150th anniversaries, starting with the 150th Anniversary of the Secession of South Carolina, December 20, 2011.

Grave of General William Scurry, CSA, Texas State Cemetery, Austin, TX

2008-11-03T18:26:00.000-06:00

Grave of General Ben McCulloch, Texas State Cemetery, Austin, TX

2008-11-03T18:21:00.000-06:00

McCulloch was killed at Elk Horn Tavern, AR.

Grave of General A. S. Johnston, Texas State Cemetery, Austin, TX

2008-11-03T18:07:00.002-06:00

Grave of General Albert Sidney Johnston, killed at Shiloh, TN

Still here....

2008-09-07T13:48:00.000-06:00

There will be a new post soon, I'm adding some pictures that I will take next week.

My Book is out....

2008-02-13T11:14:00.000-06:00

Announcing the e-publishing of my book, "An Amatuer's Look at the American Civil War."

1. Go to http://www.lulu.com/

2. Click on "Buy"

3. Under the books heading, click on "History"

4. Towards the bottom you will see "Try out advanced search" click on that.

5. Type in my last name, Powers, in the Name field.

6. My book is on page 5.

It is available only as a e-book right now.

I'll be the first to admit that I probably have not addressed every single aspect of the WBTS. But then and again, that would be what a Second Edition is for.

It's been a while...

2008-01-26T13:19:00.000-06:00

It has been some time since I posted here. I've been busy editing my book that I have been writing for the past two years. It's called "An Amateurs Look at the American Civil War." Its a collection of facts, events, and any other bits of information that I have assembled about the Civil War. It is currently at 850 pages of information and i have arranged it as such:

Civil War Calendar: Events arranged by month, by day, and then by year. Everything from major battles, minor skirmishes, political happenings, and newspaper headlines. Sprinkled throughout are quotes, some familiar, some not.

Military Life: A collection of military information to include weapons, how to load and fire said weapons, uniforms, and equipment, rations, regulations, and a cookbook.

Interesting Facts: This area explores the issues, personalities, and strange facts that came out of the war. Included are essays on African-Americans, women, the Irish, other foreigners in the two armies, Reconstruction, and ending with a roll call of the occupations of those who survived as well as those who fell.

Editing is going on at this time with the possibility of publishing this fall, most likely as an e-book.

Copperheads

2008-01-08T11:25:00.000-06:00

As with any other war in US history, the Civil War had its own anti-war opposition. There was a small, vocal, and sometimes violent group that took it upon themselves to work against the war policies of the Lincoln Administration. This group primarily consisted of a faction of the Democratic Party known as Peace Democrats and would be considered quite radical today. They were assisted by several northern newspapers and had the support of lawyers and other professionals.

There are two stories of the origin of the name for their group, Copperheads. The most popular one was that some members cut the Goddess of Liberty images out of copper pennies and fixed them to the lapels of their coats to identify themselves to each other. The other one was they were described by their Republican opponents as venomous snakes, such as the Copperhead snake.

There was not a single organization called Copperhead, the anti-war opposition actually consisted of several groups:

Knights of the Golden Circle

The Knights of the Golden Circle was an already established group (established in 1854) that wanted to maintain the balance of Slave and Free states. One of their goals was to expand the US into Mexico and the Caribbean in order to keep that balance. The group planned what was called filibustering expeditions to countries like Cuba. They planned to raise and equip a small armed force, invade said country and take over its government, and then turn that country over to the US as a new territory, usually with the aim of creating a Slave state. These plans never got beyond the discussion stage. In 1861, they had some involvement in Kentucky’s secession movement, but beyond that, there was not too much that they were able to do. Actions they did take included resisting the draft and harassing Union patrols looking for deserters. One popular tactic was to entice Union soldiers to desert by providing civilian clothes, maps to safe houses, and train tickets. Not many took up the offer. The group came to an end in 1865 amid allegations that they assisted in the Lincoln Assassination.

Order of American Knights

Established in 1850 by Phineas C. Wright, the Order of American Knights was much feared throughout the Civil War, mostly for imagined reasons. This organization patterned themselves after the Knights of the Golden Circle in their Southern sympathies as well as their tactics. Their base of membership stretched throughout the North, however, their true numbers were inflated. One thing that caught the attention of Union authorities was a meeting held in December, 1863 in Chicago, where they denounced the Lincoln Administration’s activities as unconstitutional and called for the Peace Democrats to prepare to take up arms against a looming dictatorship. The same group met in February, 1864 and, expressing misgivings about Wright’s views and tactics and actually voted to dissolve the organization. Wright himself was arrested and imprisoned for the remainder of the war. He spent the immediate post-war years trying to establish Democrat exile communities in South America.

Sons of Liberty

The Sons of Liberty was a new group to the anti-war movement, conceived in 1863 and was fully formed the following year when the former Order of American Knights was dissolved and their members renamed themselves the Sons of Liberty. This organization is not the same as the Sons of Liberty formed before the American Revolution, although their members probable thought they were. This group was a little more active, organizing themselves into military style formations in response to the Conscription Act of 1863, planning to take over sever state governments in the Northwest and secede from the Union, and to form mutual protection societies for their members. They went so far as to plan (with some help form the Confederacy) to free Confederate prisoners from Camp Douglas, Chicago, IL, arm them, and then seize control of Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, and Kentucky. Democratic Party authorities in Illinois found out and demanded they stop. This, coupled with reports from a government detective that had infiltrated the group which was published in several Republican newspapers, ended the plot and the leaders were arrested. They were tried before a military commission, found guilty of inciting insurrection and giving aid and comfort to the CSA, and sentenced to death. One leader, Lambdin Milligan, appealed his conviction on the grounds that a military commission could not try civilians. In a Supreme Court decision known as Ex Parte Milligan, the court overturned the convictions and set them free. At the end of the war, the organization soon fizzled out.

These organizations were at their strongest when Union was prospects were at their lowest. Union defeats on the battle field were usually followed by calls for negotiations with the Confederacy with the aim of just ending the war, even if it meant victory for the South. When 1864 brought Union victory, especially the capture of Atlanta, their calls fell on increasingly deaf ears.

One view that they had was that the war was supposed to be fought strictly for the preservation of the Union. When President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, they expressed their view that emancipation was unconstitutional and the aim of the war had been changed to a social one, namely freedom for African-Americans. Their racist views were widely published in various newspapers and proclaimed in speeches.

Another view that had was that President Lincoln was a despot who trampled on the rights of dissenters, closed Democrat newspapers, suspended habeas corpus, and was leading the nation into a military dictatorship. They believed in their hearts that their way of life was being threatened by a Republican controlled Congress. When the Conscription Act was enacted, some of that opposition took form in the New York City Draft Riots.

The most vocal of the dissenters was Ohio Congressman Clement Vallandingham, who was a Supreme Commander of the Sons of Liberty. On 14 January, 1863, he made a speech on the floor of the House of Representatives that not only called the war illegal and immoral, but claimed that it would eventually lead to the secession of the Northwest States.

Later that spring, Major General Ambrose Burnside, at the time commander of the Military District of Ohio, published General Order No. 38, declaring that support for the Confederacy in the district would no longer be tolerated. Vallandingham openly defied the order by making speeches on 5 May, 1863 and was arrested. He was tried with “expressing treasonous sympathy” and sentenced to prison for the duration of the war. Lincoln stepped in the commuted the sentence to banishment to the CSA. He was soon turned over to confederate authorities, but they had no use for him. He soon relocated to Canada, where he could still maintain some sort of activity.

In the Election of 1864, Vallandingham was placed on the ballot as the Peace Democrat candidate for Ohio Governor. He was soon aided in returning to the US, where he aided in the writing of the Peace Plank of the party platform. His views that the war was a failure, however, lost its punch in the light of Union victories as well as their candidate, former Major General George McClellan, rejecting the Peace Platform. Vallandingham even lost in the Ohio Governor’s race. Vallandingham himself met an ignoble end, post-war he had returned to the law profession and, while demonstrating to a friend how the victim was shot, forgot to check that the pistol he was using was loaded, and shot himself.

With the re-election of President Lincoln and the prospect that the war would soon end with total Union victory, the Copperheads soon faded from importance.

Horses

2007-12-10T14:13:00.000-06:00

Union:

Ulysses S. Grant: Cincinnati, Fox, Jack, Jeff Davis, Kangaroo, Rondy.

Nathaniel Banks: Charlie.

John Buford: Grey Eagle.

Ambrose Burnside: Old Bob.

Benjamin Butler: Almond Eye.

Joshua Chamberlain: Charlemagne.

John Gibbon: Fanny

Joseph Hooker: Lookout.

Henry Hunt: Bill.

Philip Kearny: Moscow, Decatur, Bayard.

Patrick Kelly: Faugh-a-Ballagh.

Judson Kilpatrick: Beppo, Old Spot.

John Logan: Slasher.

George McClellan: Kentuck, Daniel Webster, Burns.

George Meade: Old Baldy, Blackie, Gertie, Old Bill.

Alfred Pleasonton: Slicky

John Reynolds: Fancy, Prince.

Winfield Scott: Napoleon.

John Sedgewick: Cornwall, Handsome Joe, Rambler.

Philip Sheridan: Aldebaron, Rienzi.

William Sherman: Lexington, Sam, Dolly.

Daniel Sickles: Grand old Canister, Grape, Tammany.

George Thomas: Billy.

Strong Vincent: Old Jim.

Confederate:

Robert E. Lee: Ajax, Brown Roan, Traveller, Lucy Long, Richmond.

Edward P. Alexander: Dixie.

Patrick Cleburne: Dixie.

Richard Ewell: Rifle.

Nathan Bedford Forrest: King Philip, Highlander, Roderick.

Richard Garnett: Red Eye.

John Gordon: Milroy.

Davis Gregg: Pretty.

Wade Hampton: Butler, Beauregard, Captain.

John Bell Hood: Jeff Davis

Thomas Jackson: Old Sorrel.

Albert S. Johnston: Fire-eater.

Joseph Johnston: Fannie.

Fitzhugh Lee: Nellie Gray.

James Longstreet: Hero.

John Hunt Morgan: Black Bess.

Sterling Price: Bucephalus.

Robert Rhodes: Firefly.

George Steuart: Pocahontas.

J.E.B. Stuart: Virginia, Highfly, Skylark, General, Chancellor, Bullet, My Maryland.

Walter Taylor: Fleetfoot.

Isaac Trimble: Jinny.

2007-12-01T14:12:00.000-06:00

I've been away for a while, helping my wife with the passing of her Mother. I will be returning to this blog within the next week.

Women

2007-11-05T13:12:00.000-06:00

There is another aspect of the Civil War that should be included in every history, the contributions and impact that women made in the conflict. Many of these women were not the stay at home type who saw their husbands, fathers, and brothers march off to war. The maintained farms, worked in factories, nursed the wounded, clerked in government offices and, in about 1250 cases, donned a male disguise and actually carried a musket.

Others left diaries that gave insights into the civilian side of life on the Home Front, or in some cases, when the front reached their home. The chronicled the struggles of life while the men were away as well as the struggle to get food on the table in a time that armies were stripping the farms bare. There were also insights into the political issues at the time. There might have been a few Scarlett O’Hara types, with their parasols and saying, “fiddle-de-de,” but a good look at the women of the period would find that they were a lot tougher than popular literature suggested. Especially since some of these women were African-Americans, who also endured being slaves.

Union:

Louisa May Alcott started working in a Georgetown, MD hospital helping wounded Union soldiers. She wrote letters to her family which described her experiences working there. Those letters became Hospital Sketches. She was more famous for her post-war novels, Little Women and Little Men.

Susie Baker was a slave in Georgia who managed to learn to read and write. She put those skills to good use while a laundress with the 33rd United States Colored Troops. After the war, she helped organize part of the Women’s Relief Corps, as well as becoming a nurse.

Clara Barton started her working life in the US Patent Office. She soon took up nursing and after the war, was instrumental in founding the America Red Cross.

Mary Bickerdyke served as a nurse in about 19 engagements in the West and as an agent of the Sanitary Commission. Her assistance was such that Major General Thomas Sherman made her the only civilian woman allowed in his area of operations. At the end of the war, she was allowed to ride at the head of a group of Sanitary Commission agents at the Grand Review. Post-war she worked on securing pensions for Union veterans and even secured one herself. She was more known to the troops as “Mother” Bickerdyke.

Elizabeth Blackwell put her status as the first female medical doctor to good use, helping found the Sanitary Commission, which was a great help to many Union soldiers, in camp or in the hospital.

Mary Elizabeth Bowser was an African-American servant working in the Confederate White House. She also was a very well educated woman who picked up lost of information that the Union was able to use, some of that from CS President Jefferson Davis!

Kady Brownell was a color-bearer in the 1st Rhode Island at the First Battle of Manassas, VA, the unit her husband was also serving in. She was officially on the rolls as a “Daughter of the Regiment,” as well as a vivandiere, or sutler. The couple also served with the 5th Rhode Island.

Florena Budwin enlisted in the Union Army with her husband. Both were captured and sent to Andersonville, where he died. She was transferred to the Florence, SC prison, where she died.

Frances Clayton followed her husband into the Union Army, participating in 18 engagements until her husband was killed in the Battle of Stones River in 1862. She was wounded in the same battle and her gender was discovered as she was being treated. She was one of about 1000 women who disguised themselves was men and followed the Union colors.

Lizzie Compton never gave up trying to enlist as a Union soldier. She claimed to have been in seven different units.

Pauline Cushman tricked some Confederate sympathizers in New Orleans by accepting $300 just to go on a stage and present a toast to the CSA. She made the toast, received the money, and used it to start her career as a Union spy.

Frances Day entered the 126th Pennsylvania as Sergeant Frank Mayne in order to be near her sweetheart. She deserted after her beau died of illness.

Dorothea Dix broke gender barriers by becoming the first female superintendent of US Army nurses. As a matter of fact, the demands placed on manpower by the war effort led to women being hired by many departments of the Federal Government.

A little girl named Emily disguised herself as a boy and joined a Michigan regiment. She died at Lookout Mountain, outside Chattanooga, TN.

Anne Etheridge followed her husband into Union service, but did not follow him when he deserted. She became a “Daughter of the Regiment” in the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th Michigan before the war’s end.

Ella Gibson was elected chaplain of the 1st WI Heavy Artillery.

Cornelia Hancock started her nursing career in the camp hospitals that sprang up following the Battle of Gettysburg.

Mrs. Judith Henry became the first woman to die in the war when she was hit by Federal artillery at the First Battle of Manassas

Albert Cashier was injured in an automobile accident in 1911. In the hospital, it was found that “Cashier” was actually a woman named Jennie Hodgers who disguised herself as a man, served in the 95th Illinois Infantry, and kept the deception into the 20th Century.

Clara Harris was a close eye witness to the Lincoln Assassination.

Julia Ward Howe was taking a carriage ride with her husband when she spotted a group of Union soldiers singing “John Brown’s Body.” She remarked that there should be better words to that tune. That night, she could not sleep and began writing a poem that she felt was better suited for the music. The poem became “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” and was a great hit with the troops. Sadly, the Atlantic Monthly only paid her $4 for the poem.

Elizabeth Keckley, an African-American seamstress, was the closest confidant of First Lady Mary Lincoln. She also worked for Confederate First Lady Varina Davis.

Mary Livermore bucked more traditional women’s roles to co-direct the Chicago office of the Sanitary Commission.

In 1864, near Florence, AL, Confederate troops captured a Federal soldier named Frank Miller, shooting him in the leg while he tried to escape. Upon searching him, it turned out that he was a woman, named Frances Hook. She had enlisted with her brother, only to see him die at Shiloh.

Mary Siezgle was another woman who enlisted in the Federal Army in order to be near her husband. They served in the 44th New York Infantry.

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, was first published as a serial in the National Era. The following year it was released in book form. It sold 1,000,000 copies, a mega-best seller in its time. During the war, President Lincoln met Stowe and remarked to her, “so you are the little woman whose book started this war.” (Really interesting was that the villain, Simon Legree, was described as a Northerner.)

Mary Tepe, known as French Mary, was a vivandiere, a female sutler. She sold pies, tinned meat, personal care items, and sometimes whiskey. She also mended and washed soldiers’ uniforms. She became a vivandiere when her husband enlisted in the 114th Pennsylvania. At Fredericksburg, VA she was wounded while tending a group of wounded. She was decorated for braving 13 battles while serving her husband’s unit.

Franklin Thompson enlisted into the 2nd Michigan Infantry during the first call up of volunteers by the Lincoln Administration. After demonstrating to the surgeon the ability to handle a musket and tear a cartridge (and not much else) he was mustered in. There were two reasons he did nit have to serve in the Union Army, he was a Canadian, and he was actually a she named Sarah Emma Edmonds. Following the war, her comrades campaigned successfully for her to receive a pension.

Several Union soldiers noticed the peculiar way John Thompson was putting on his socks. Further investigation discovered that “Thompson” was female.

Harriet Tubman, an escaped slave, became the most well known “conductors” in the Underground Railroad, the system of safe houses that assisted escaped slaves. She also served as a scout for the Union Army in South Carolina.

Residents of Richmond, VA took no notice of the woman who was wondering the streets, talking to herself. “That’s just Crazy Bet,” they would say with contempt for the local Unionist. In fact, Elizabeth Van Lew’s insanity was an act covering the fact that she was running a spy ring that extended into the office of President Jefferson Davis himself.

Elizabeth Cooper Vernon was training male volunteers in military methods at the start of the war.

Jennie Wade was the only civilian killed during the Battle of Gettysburg, having been struck by a stray bullet while baking bread on 3 July, 1863.

Private Lyons Wakeman died of illness during the Red River Campaign. The 153rd New York soldier was really Sarah Rosetta Wakeman.

Mary Walker, M.D., was the only female surgeon in the Union Army. She was also the only woman to receive a Medal of Honor during the Civil War. (It was revoked in 1919 and reinstated in 1977)

Confederate:

Two brothers, Sam and Keith Blalock, members of the 26th North Carolina, were seen to have a really close relationship. It was because “Sam” was actually Keith’s wife, Malinda.

Belle Boyd made sure Major General Thomas Jackson knew about Federal troop movements in the Shenandoah Valley, VA.

Mary Chesnut was the wife of James Chesnut Jr, an early Confederate Congressman. She began writing a diary about what she saw and heard throughout the war. She witnessed the bombardment of Fort Sumter from a rooftop and documented everything until the war came to an end. Her diary is considered one of the most detail personal accounts of the period.

Mary Ann Clark was one of 250 known Southern women who disguised themselves as men and fight for the Cause. She was a Lieutenant under Braxton Bragg.

Kate Cumming’s diary of her experiences as a nurse was published in 1866 as “A Journal of Hospital Life in the Confederate Army of Tennessee.”

Rose Greenhow might have survived falling out of a lifeboat near the Cape Fear River, NC, is she had undone the belt with $2000.00 in gold that she was wearing.
Mrs. Judith Henry became the first woman to die in the war when she was hit by Federal artillery at the First Battle of Manassas.

Charlie Hopper looked to be about 16 to the members of the 1st Virginia Cavalry. It is not known if they ever found out if “Hopper” was really Charlotte Hope.

Sarah Morgan was another diarist whose detailed accounts dive a look at how things went in the South.

Sarah Jane Ann Perkins served in a Confederate artillery battery until captured at Hanover Junction.

Mary Pittman, disguised as a Lieutenant Rawley, rode with Nathan Bedford Forrest. She took up spying, but defected to the Union.

Sally Tompkins became the only woman commissioned in the Confederate Army. It was a reward for running a successful hospital. Her hospital was the most successful in the Confederacy, with only 73 patients out of 1300 dying under her care.

Loreta Janeta Velazquez, over her husband’s objections, followed him into Confederate service. She took the name Harry T. Buford and was identified as a Lieutenant. In her memoirs, she details her participation in battles as diverse as Ball's Bluff and Shiloh.

African-American Troops

2007-09-24T14:17:00.000-06:00

There can never be a gook look at the Civil War without noting the contribution of African-Americans in the conflict.

The whole idea of having African-Americans fight for their freedom seemed to have been a sticky issue from the start. Freed slaves actually fought in the American Revolution as full-fledged members of George Washington’s Continental Army as well as several units that fought in the War of 1812. Most noted were the African-Americans who fought with Andrew Jackson’s army at the Battle of New Orleans.

By the time the Mexican War was being fought (1846-1848), Blacks had been barred from military service. It seemed that their past service had been largely forgotten amid racial prejudices. There was one exception, the Navy. In filling out crew rosters for their warships, Navy recruiters were not picky about who served as powder monkeys (usually boys who hauled bags of gun powder to the cannon), cannoneers, or riggers (needed for sail-powered ships). Many pictures of US Navy crews from the 1860’s showed not a few black faces among them.

As the Civil War began, many Northern African-Americans heeded President Abraham Lincoln’s call for volunteers and rushed to recruiting stations, only to be turned away by the recruiting sergeants.

In the South, there was no question about Blacks serving in the Confederate Army, it was not happening. Officially, slave could be rented to the armies as teamsters, cooks, manual labor, wagon drivers, and other support functions. Unofficially, many of these African-Americans also held muskets and stood in volley lines, keeping up as good a fire as their White counterparts. When Major General Patrick Cleburne suggested that slaves should be allowed to serve in the army in exchange for their freedom, he was ripped apart in the realm of popular opinion and ended up losing his command for that opinion.

In New Orleans, a group of Free Blacks got together and began drilling as a unit. They were soon named the Louisiana Native Guards, a militia unit that pledge to help the defense of the city, an obvious target for a Union invasion. This group of African-Americans was pledging their services to the Confederacy! However, local defenders were not interested and abandoned the Native Guards to the advancing Federals. As a result, they switched allegiances to the Union. Among their duties, they garrisoned Ship Island, off Gulfport, MS, a major Union base in the region.

It was not until 1862 that the Federal Government, and especially Lincoln, saw the necessary of allowing Blacks into the Army. Their numbers would be sorely needed. This action resulted of two things; there was pressure from several African-American groups who were demanding that they be in the fight, also there was the need to put the war on a more moral footing. The second item stemmed from the recent issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation, which changed the object of the war from just only a war to preserve the Union to the added object to ending Slavery once and for all. Blacks knew from that point that it was their fight too. Lincoln authorized the addition of 100,000 African-Americans to the army with one provision; all the officers had to be White.

Finding officers to command these new units were problematic as first. Many Northerners were as prejudiced as Southerners and would have no part in this enterprise. However, many officers, at first from abolitionist families, as well as a few enlisted, enticed with the promises of a commission, soon joined.

When this news hit the Confederacy, reaction was intense. The Confederate Congress quickly passed a law that allowed captured Black troops to be “returned to a state of slavery” (even if that soldier was a Free Black to begin with) and any officers who were captured while in command of African-American troops were to be subject to execution for “inciting servile insurrection.” Still that did not deter the Northerners.

In February of 1862 there was an effort already to put African-Americans in uniform. Union Major General David Hunter had been placed in command of the Union Department of the South, which covered the coastal areas of South Carolina, Georgia, and northeast Florida with 18,000 troops. Hunter felt that that was not enough to do the job, and Washington was not sending reinforcements any time soon.

13 April, 1862: General Hunter issued a declaration that all slaves of “enemies of the United States” were to be confiscated and declared free. The main object here was to deprive local plantations of needed labor. This also gave him a pool to tap for manpower.

Later that month, Hunter ordered able-bodied Blacks gathered in order to raise a regiment, named the 1st South Carolina (US) Infantry. They were initially used as labor, but it was intended to be a combat unit. That is, if the US Government would recognize the unit and fund it. This proved to be a problem since President Lincoln had already quashed the declaration. Since the government refused to pay and equip the unit, the experiment soon fell apart with it’s disbanding on 10 August, 1862.

27 September, 1862: The Louisiana Native Guards was officially accepted into Union service as the 1st Regiment Louisiana Native Guards. What was amazing at the time was the line officers (Captains and Lieutenants) were Black.

12 October, 1862: The 2nd Regiment Louisiana Native Guards was mustered into service.

29 October, 1862: The 1st Kansas (Colored) Volunteer Infantry took part in a skirmish at Island Mound, MO. This unit was locally raised and not yet in Federal service. This was the first time that Blacks fought in Missouri as a unit, rather than as individuals as they had been since the fighting began. That unit would receive Federal recognition on 1 January, 1863.

24 November, 1862: The 3rd Regiment Louisiana Native Guards was mustered into service.

Around that same time, the 1st and 2nd Regiments took part in operations in the Bayou La Fourche, south of New Orleans.

As 1863 dawned, the commander of Union forces in Louisiana at the time, Major General Nathaniel Banks, succumbed to pressure from locals, who believed that the presence of Black troops would cause problems, sent the 2nd Regiment to Ship Island and the 1st to the old Confederate forts of Jackson and St. Philip. The 3rd was used in operations around Baton Rouge between February and May of 1863. Other operations included a skirmish at Pascagoula, MS on 9 April, 1863 and an assault on Port Hudson, LA on 27 May, 1863.

These actions began to answer a question that was in the minds of the Northern public (as well as a few generals and politicians); will the Black Man fight. Notwithstanding that African soldiers had been in several armies throughout history. The answer to that question was a resounding YES!

In Massachusetts, there was an effort to raise an African-American regiment. They put out a call for volunteers and received a response from not just Massachusetts men, but from all over the US. This group included Northern Free Blacks as well as those who just escaped slavery in the South. This group was designated the 54th Massachusetts and command was given to Robert Gould Shaw, a son of a prominent abolitionist family. Shaw had troubles from the start, getting his green troops trained for battle amid rumors that they would only be used only for manual labor and as garrison troops, getting his troops the equipment they needed from reluctant supply officers, and the biggest insult of all, the pay.

Union Privates received a monthly pay of $13.00 a month and their clothing was taken care of. The War Department declared that African-Americans would receive $10.00 a month, with $3.00 taken for uniforms. In a world in which $10.00 was a small fortune, that was a lot of money lost. In order to quell a possible riot, Shaw and his officers pledged not to receive their pay until the inequality was addressed.

28 May, 1863: The 54th MA paraded through the streets of Boston, to the delight of both Blacks and Whites, and boarded transports to South Carolina. They soon arrived at St. Simeon’s Island and Shaw reported to the garrison commander, Colonel James Montgomery.

11 June, 1863: Elements of the 54th MA and the 2nd South Carolina (US) African Descent marched to Darien, GA where the raid that Colonel Montgomery was carrying out resulted in burning the town down. Shaw was not happy at the operation and felt that the honor of the 54th was dirtied. He managed to have his regiment transferred to Charleston, SC.

8 July, 1863: The 54th MA was quickly transferred to James Island, where they would take part in operations against Confederate defenses there.

11 July, 1863: Shaw and his troops arrive.

16 July, 1863: The 54th gets their first taste of combat. While performing picket duty on Sol Legare’s Island, about 300 Confederates attacked. The purpose of this attack was to capture the camp of the 10th Connecticut and capture as many of the soldiers as possible. The African-Americans of the 54th MA held their ground, losing several troops in order to give the 10th CT time to get away. Their losses were 14 killed, 18 wounded, and 13 missing (those missing were found to have been captured and executed).

Having proved themselves, Shaw volunteered for another mission. There had been an attempt to take a Confederate artillery position called Battery Wagner. This position was at the north end of Morris Island and covered the harbor entrance to Charleston. On 10 July, Federal forces were savaged an attempt to take the fort. The Union commander, Brigadier General Quincy Gilmore, decided to soften up the place with both land-based and naval bombardment. As plans were made to assemble another ground assault, Gilmore would have heard of the request to include the 54th MA and approved their transfer.

18 July, 1863: 9:00 a.m.: As the 54th MA arrived on Folly Island, south of Morris Island, the bombardment was already in progress. Gilmore thought that after he was through, units like the 54th would only need a mopping-up operation to secure the fort.

Gilmore had experience in battering down forts, he was the one who took out Fort Pulaski, near Savannah, GA. There was a difference; Pulaski was a brick fort that could be battered down. Wagner was a sand and earth fort that swallowed incoming shells while its garrison rested in shelters called bombproofs.

5:00 p.m.: Shaw and his troops were ferried across to Morris Island, where he was offered the honor of being the first regiment into the attack. The 54th would be backed up by the 6th Connecticut, 48th New York, 3rd New Hampshire, 9th Maine, and 76th Pennsylvania. They were backed up by three artillery batteries.

The entire formation had to march up a narrow strip of sand between a marsh and the Atlantic Ocean. As they approached the fort, they would be subject to artillery fire from the Confederate defenders.

About 6:00 p.m., the formation began to advance.

First thing the Federals found out was that not all the Confederate guns were destroyed, solid cannon shells began to pound the approaching formations. Shaw told his men to lie down among the dunes until darkness fell.

7:45 p.m.: Shaw gave the order, “Move in quick time until within a hundred yards of the fort, then double quick and charge.” With that he yelled “FORWARD!” The formation moved as one, despite the shell and grapeshot that began to pepper the Federals. Every hole that appeared in the line was quickly filled in as the 54th approached the wall, where they found a moat that had to be crossed before the wall could be climbed. On the wall were troops of the 31st, 51st, and 61st North Carolina, firing down into the mass of Union troops.

The 54th was not the only ones there, the 6th CT and 48th NY were at the southeast corner trying to get in themselves.

Sergeant William Carney found his unit’s National Flag next to its fallen color bearer. He picked it up and, despite being wounded several times, kept the flag up in the face of the enemy. He would become the first African-American to receive the Medal of Honor for that.

Shaw rallied his men to the top of the forts wall, where he was fatally wounded. The other top officers were either killed or wounded. Captain Louis Emilio became the de-facto commander of the 54th MA and rallied his men to the top of the wall.

The first wave of the assault was hung up along the wall. There was a delay in sending in the second. When they were finally sent in, that wave was also stopped.

Emilio had the task of reassembling what was left of the 54th MA, even as scattered unite had managed to get into the fort itself, where very few came out.

When everything was finished, the 54th MA lost 256 in the assault, including most of the officers.

Shaw was buried with several of his soldiers. The Confederates refused to send his body across the lines, stating, “We buried him with his n*****s.” Shaw’s father, however, considered that an honor.

The heroics of the 54th Massachusetts proved to be the spark that opened the way for more African-Americans to join the US Army. So many units were being formed that a new designation was needed: United States Colored Troops.

In 1864, there were other opportunities for African-American troops to prove their worth.

20 February, 1864: Olustree, FL: The 54th MA was in battle again, along with the 8th USCT, the 1st North Carolina (US) Colored and the 2nd South Carolina (US) African Descent. Union forces were attempting to push their way from Jacksonville to Tallahassee when they were repulsed by 1200 Confederates under Brigadier General Joseph Finnegan. The African-American troops covered the retreat, buying time with their lives.

There were also tragedy thrown at them.

12 April, 1864: A garrison of African-Americans and Tennessee Unionists were overrun at Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi River, by Confederates under Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest. Whether it was done after the surrender, or because they refused to surrender, most of the garrison was massacred.

There was the also the issue of prisoners of war. The official Confederate position was that African-Americans in uniform was not to be afforded POW status. There were black troops in prisons like Andersonville, GA and Belle Island, VA, but they were used for manual labor. Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant, in his capacity as Commander-in-Chief of all Union forces, stopped the practice of prisoner exchanges until his African-Americans were given the same status as White troops.

During the Overland Campaign against the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, African-Americans made up two brigades of IX Corps and fought from the Wilderness to Petersburg.

In contrast, Major General William Sherman’s armies did not have a single Black soldier. It seemed that Sherman had no use for them.

30 July, 1864: The Battle of the Crater: The plan for when the mine was detonated had both African-American brigades spearhead the assault. As a matter of fact, they had trained for a straight month while the mine was being dug. Sadly, General Grant had ordered the IX Corps commander, Major General Ambrose Burnside, not to send in the Black troops for political and public relations reasons. An unprepared brigade, led by a drunkard and coward, was sent in first. The African-Americans were sent in later, after the assault had bogged down, losing scores in the process.

Despite the bravery of the African-Americans, only one, Sergeant Decatur Dorsey, 39th USCT, received the Medal of Honor.

On the Confederate side, the debate about using Black troops was not decided until it was becoming too late. Despite protests from hard-liners, the Confederate Congress approved the enlistment of African-Americans into the Confederate Army. Two regiments of mixed White and Black troops drilled to the delight of Richmond residents, but it was too little, too late.

As Richmond fell on 3 April,1865, the first Union troops to enter the former Confederate Capital were members of the 28th USCT. This spoke volumes to the defeated Confederates. Other units were involved in the Appomattox campaign, resulting in the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia.

The last engagement of the Civil War, at Palmito Ranch, TX (11-12 May, 1865) also saw the last use of African-American troops as the 62nd USCT made up a large part of the Union force that was repulsed.

Following the war’s conclusion, African-African troops made up a large part of the force needed to police the former Confederate States. This action left bad feelings amongst the local population that might have contributed to the Black Codes that were enacted following the end of Reconstruction. They were also involved in operations along the Rio Grand River that were conducted to keep Imperial Mexico from invading.

Even so, the pace of disbanding Black units were not as fast as the White ones, but in the course of time, the volunteer regiments were disbanded. Those who wanted to continue in the Army were assigned to the 9th and 10th US Cavalry, who would become known as “Buffalo Soldiers” and would see large scale battle again in the Spanish-American War (at times alongside former Confederates). The 24th and 25th US Infantry was also authorized.

African-Americans earned their citizenship at places like Fort Wagner and the Crater. Sadly, that reward was not realized until the 1960’s, one hundred years after their battles.

Marines

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There has not been much information on the role of the Marines in the Civil War. Their traditional role, ship security, small scale land missions, and fighting at sea, was not called for in the major land battles of the war. Still, Marines played a part in the eventual Union victory.

Union:

In 1861 the US Marine Corps consisted of the Commandant, usually a Colonel, a Major who had the dual jobs of Adjutant and Inspector, another Major who was the Paymaster, a Quartermaster, another Major, and an Assistant Quartermaster, a Captain, making up the Command Section.
Operations consisted of a Lieutenant Colonel, four Majors, 13 Captains, 20 First Lieutenants, 20 Second Lieutenants, 101 Sergeants, 137 corporals, and 1347 Privates.
This was soon raised to include one additional Colonel, one additional Lieutenant Colonel, one additional Assistant Quartermaster, seven more Captains, 10 more First Lieutenants, and 10 more Second Lieutenants. A total Enlisted strength of 220 more corporals, and 2500 privates was also authorized.

The US Marine Corps was the size of almost three standard Civil War regiments.

The US Marines had already played a role in pre-Civil War tensions; it was a detachment of Marines, led by US Army Colonel Robert E. Lee, who put down John Brown’s Revolt in 1859.

The raise in Marines was done after a detachment of 13 Officers and 336 Enlisted were among those running from the battlefield at First Bull run (Manassas, VA). Some of these additions were also for replacing officers who resigned their commissions and joined a newly created Confederate States Marine Corps.

Two noted missions that the Marines were a part of was an assault on Fort Sumter, Charleston, SC on 8 September, 1863, which failed, an engagement at Honey Hill, SC in 1864, and the assault on Fort Fisher, 15 January 1865 as part of a sailor/Marine force.

Marine uniforms were a little bit different then the Army’s. The headgear was the traditional kepi with a badge consisting of an “M” set in a red oval. The blouse was the same as the Army’s and was colored the same shade of blue. The trousers were white instead of sky blue. Enlisted rank was noted as upward pointing red chevrons while the officer rank was marked by the use of Russian Knots instead of the rank badges the Army used.

Confederate:

The CS Marine Corps was initially made up of six companies officered by former US Marine officers. The Corps was soon commanded by a Colonel, with a Lieutenant Colonel, three Majors (adjutant, paymaster, and quartermaster), a Sergeant Major, a Quartermaster Sergeant, and two Musicians in the Command Section.
Operation were conducted at the company level with 10 Captains, 10 First Lieutenants, 20 Second Lieutenants, 40 Sergeants, 40 Corporals, and 840 Privates.

The companies were assigned thus:

Company A: formed at New Orleans in 1861 and was assigned to Richmond in 1862.

Company B: formed at New Orleans in 1861 and was assigned to Richmond in 1862.

Company C: formed at New Orleans in 1861 and was assigned to Richmond in 1862.

Company D: formed at Memphis and Mobile, assigned to Mobile.

Company E: formed at Savannah, assigned to Charleston in 1864 and sent a detachment to Wilmington.

Company F: formed at New Orleans, moved to Mobile after New Orleans fell.

Parts of these companies were detached to ship duty aboard the following: CSS Atlanta, Baltic, Charleston, Chicora, Columbia, Dalman, Drewry, Fredericksburg, Gaines, Gallego, Huntress, Indian Chief, Isondiaga, Jamestown, Macon, McRae, Morgan, Nashville, North Carolina, Palmetto State, Patrick Henry, Raleigh, Resolute, Richmond, Sampson, Savannah (both the steamer and the ironclad vessels), Tennessee, Time, United States, Virginia, Virginia II, Tallahassee/Olustree, Shenandoah, Georgia, Rappahannock, Stonewall, Artic, and Georgia.

The first CS Marines fought during the attack of CSS Virginia on the Federal blockade on 8-9 March, 1862. Their last engagement was at Saylor’s Creek on 6 April, 1865.

CS Marine uniforms almost copied the US Marine model, except that the overblouse was gray and the enlisted chevrons were brown. It is not known if the kepis had any ornamentation, as records were destroyed in 1865. The same white trousers were used.

Weapons for either side would be the standard rifled muskets and sidearms, but specially treated to prevent corrosion while at sea.

Confederate Exiles

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As the Civil War was winding down, many Confederates, seeing the writing in the wall, resolved not to allow themselves to be placed back under Federal laws. Some, like Edwin Ruffin, chose to commit suicide, while others chose exile:

4 July, 1865: Confederate Brigadier General Joseph Shelby led a group that included former Governors Pendleton Murrah (Texas), Charles Morehead (Kentucky), and Henry Allen (Louisiana). Also among this group were Generals John Magruder, Hamilton Bee, Thomas Hindman, and Sterling Price. They crossed the Rio Grande to establish a colony in Mexico.

Major Washington Goldsmith, who commanded Georgia troops, helped establish a colony in British Honduras (now Belize).

John Taylor Wood, a Confederate Navy Captain, relocated to Nova Scotia, rather than swear an oath to the United States.

A Confederate community in Ontario, Canada hosted Jubal Early, John Hood, James Mason (CS Commissioner to the UK), and John Breckenridge.

A very large Confederate colony was formed north of Sao Paulo. This community still exists in the form of the town of Americana, populated with descendants of the founders.

Matthew Maury, former US Navy oceanographer and former Confederate Navy purchasing agent in Europe, directed the Imperial Mexican Observatory.

Judah Benjamin, former CS Secretary of State, became a Queens Counsel for Lancashire, England.

Others who lived in England, included Louis Wigfall and Robert Toombs.

Many of the estimated 10000 exiles did return to the US, but only after taking the oath of loyalty to the United States. Others were staunch Confederates to the end and never returned.

Naval Forces of both sides.

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Union:

Pre-CW strength: 1563 officers and 7500 enlisted were in the US Navy at the outbreak of the Civil War.

Of the officers, 321 resigned their commissions when their states seceded (or were possibly going to in the case of Franklin Buchanan, who resigned when he thought Maryland was seceding. When Maryland did not secede, Buchanan tried to take back his resignation, but that was refused).

The pre-CW navy consisted of:

21 sloops of war: 5 in Home Squadron, 4 in the East Indies, 2 in the Mediterranean, 1 near Brazil, 3 patrolling the African Coast, and 6 in the Pacific.

12 steamers (steam powered ships): 4 in Home Squadron, 1 in the East Indies, 1 in the Mediterranean, 1 near Brazil, 4 patrolling the African Coast, and 1 in the Pacific.

3 frigates: 1 in Home Squadron, 1 in the East Indies, and 1 near Brazil.

2 storeships: 1 in the hone Squadron and 1 patrolling the African Coast.

The main advantage the North had was the ability to draw upon civilian sources for ships and personnel. Also there was a great advantage that the Union was able to control the possession of the Navy Yards, with their dry docks and maintenance facilities. Norfolk, VA was briefly held by the Confederates but had to give that up in 1862. Pensacola, FL could not be taken as long as the Union held Fort Pickens.

The main problem was that even as President Lincoln was ordering a blockade of Southern ports, there were not enough ships to even begin one. It was fortunate that Lincoln had Gideon Welles as Secretary of the Navy. He embarked on a program of not only constructing new ship, but buying civilian ships for conversion to war vessels. Finding volunteers to crew them were not too hard, many civilians were run off the seas by the presence of Confederate commerce raiders that were already making an influence.

Another advantage that the union had was the ability to use new technologies, and the industrial base to exploit that advantage. Even though the Confederates were the first to deploy a warship with iron cladding on the outside, the Union was not far behind, and soon overtook the South in iron warship production.

The Blockade:

The coasts of the CSA were segmented into four zones by the time a proper blockade was in place, in 1862.
As of 1864 (unless otherwise mentioned):

North Atlantic Blockading Squadron:
Commanders:

Flag Officer Louis M. Goldsborough (1861-1862)
Rear Admiral Samuel P. Lee (1862-1864)
Rear Admiral David Dixon Porter (1864-1865)
Rear Admiral William Radford (1865)

Flagship: USS Minnesota
Ironclad steamer: USS Roanoke
Steamers: Fort Jackson, Shenandoah, Connecticut, St. Lawrence, Keystone State, Hetzel, Florida, Louisiana, Cambridge, State of Georgia, Mercedita, Maratanza, Morse, Nansemond, Southfield, Niphon, Daylight, Montgomery, Commodore Perry, Mount Vernon, Britannia, Governor Buckingham, Houquah, Lockwood, Underwriter, Calypso, Commodore Barney, Commodore Hull, Wyandotte, Mt. Washington, Commodore Jones, Stepping Stones, Lilack, Young Rover, Mystic, Emma, General Putnam, Victoria, Hunchback, Shawsheen, Samuel Rotan, Whitehead, Cohasset, Fab-Kee, and Seymour.
Gunboat: Miami.
Supply ship: Newbern.
Support ship: Release.
Sloop: Granite.
Tugboats: Alert and Zouave.
Storeship: Albemarle.

Area covered: Coasts of Virginia and North Carolina.

South Atlantic Blockading Squadron:
Commander:

Real Admiral John Dahlgren (1863-1865)

Flagship: USS Wabash
Ironclad Steamers: Lehigh, Passaic, Nantucket, Montauk, Nahant, Patapsco, New Ironsides, and Catskill.
Steamers: Canandaigua, Housatonic, Pawnee, Sonoma, Paul Jones, Mahaska, Cimmaron, Nipsic, Chippewa, Unadilla, Ottawa, Huron, Water Witch, Marblehead, Wissahickon, Seneca, Memphis, Lodona, Flambeau, Commodore McDonough, Mohawk, Home, Potomska, Stettin, Iris, Philadelphia, O. M. Pettit, Norwich, Mary Sanford, E. G. Hale, South Carolina, Oleander, Geranium, Larkspur, Daffodil, Jonquil, Carnation, Clover, Dandelion, and Columbine.
Barques: Ethan Allen, Brazilliera, A. Houghton, Kingfisher, Fernandina, and Midnight.
Schooners: Hope, Dan Smith, F. A. Ward, Racer, C. P. Williams, George Mangham, Norfolk Packet, and Blunt.
Ordinance sloop: John Adams.
Storeships: Supply and Vermont.

Area covered: Coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and of east Florida to Key West. Main focus was on Charleston, SC.

East Gulf Blockading Squadron (ships assigned as of 1863):
Commanders:

Rear Admiral William Mervine (1861)
Flag officer William McKean (1861-1862)

Flagship: St Lawrence.
Steamers: San Jacinto, Penguin, Sagamore, Tahoma, Port Royal, Somerset, Lodona, Fort Henry, Huntsville, Magnolia, and Stars and Stripes.
Barques: Pursuit, Gemshok, James L. Davis, Roebuck, James S. Chambers, Amanda, Ethan Allen, and Houghton.
Sloop of War: Dale
Schooners: Eugenie, Beauregard, and Wanderer.

Area covered: West Florida coast from Key West to the Alabama-Mississippi line.

West Gulf Blockading Squadron:
Commanders:

Rear Admiral David Farragut (1862-1864)
Flag Officer James Palmer (1864-1865)
Real Admiral Henry Thatcher (1865)

Flagship: USS Hartford.
Steamers: Pensacola, Ossipee, Richmond, Lacawanna, Itasca, Monongahela, Metacomet, Oneida, Princess Royal, Seminole, Octorara, Kanawha, Genesee, Galena, Owasco, Katahdin, Port Royal, Chocura, Pembina, Penobscot, Kennebec, Pinola, Cayuga, Estrella, New London, Aroostook, Sciota, Arkansas, Albatross, John P. Jackson, Virginia, Pengyin, Tennessee, Arizona, Antona, Granite City, Jasmine, Hollyhock, Commodore, and Eugenie.
Steam Frigate: Colorado.
Sloops: Portsmouth and Vincennes.
Barques: W. G. Anderson, Arthur, and J. C. Kuhn.
Brig: Bohio and Seafoam.
Support Ships: Fearnot, and Nightingale.
Barquentine: Horace Beals.
Yacht: Corypheus.
Schooners: Maria Wood, Orvetta, John Griffiths, Sam Houston, Sarah Bruen, Henry James, and Oliver H. Lee.
Storeship: Potomac.

Area covered: The coast from the Alabama-Mississippi line to the Rio Grande River (Texas-Mexico border).

Mississippi River Squadron:

Flagship: Blackhawk.
Ironclad Steamers: Essex, Eastport, Lafayette, Benton, Louisville, Tuscumbia, Choctaw, Conestoga, Mound City, Lexington, Pittsburg, Chillicothe, Neosho, Carondelet, and Osage.
Steamers: Moose, Taylor, Forest Rose, Fort Hindman, Hastings, Brilliant, St. Clair, Silver Cloud, Covington, Queen City, Tawah, Key West, Peosta, Reindeer, General Price, General Bragg, Rattler, Exchange, Brown, Linden, Kenwood, Fair Play, Springfield, Fawn, Paw Paw, Naunkeag, Silver Lake, Champion, Alexandria, Great Western, Judge Torrence, New Era, Signal, Prairie Bird, Curlew, Little Rebel, Victory, Tensas, General Pillow, Bobb, Argosy, Ouachita, New National, General Lyon, and Samson.
Hospital Steamer: Red Rover.
Tugboats: Pansy, Fern, Thistle, Laurel, Mignonette, Daisy, Mistletoe, Myrtle, Dahlia, Hyacinth, and Ivy.
Inspection Ship: Abraham.

Potomac River Flotilla:

Steamers: Ella, Yankee, Commodore Read, Currituck, Jacob Bell, Fuchsia, Couer de Lion, Resolute, Freeborn, Anacostia, Wyandank, Tulip, Primrose, Teaser, and Dragon.
Schooners: Sophonia, Matthew Vassar, Adolph Hugel, and William Bacon.

East India Squadron (Indonesia, Singapore):

Side-wheel sloops: Saginaw and Wyoming.

West Indian Squadron (Caribbean):

Side-wheel gunboat: Tioga.
Screw driven vessels: Galatea and Neptune.
Sloop: Macedonian.
Barque: Gemsbok.
(These vessels were assigned to the East Gulf blockading Squadron in 1864.)

Brazil Squadron (South Atlantic):

Screw driven vessel: Wachusett.
Side-wheel vessels: Pulaski and Emma Henry.

Mediterranean Squadron:

Screw driven vessel: Iroquois.
Sloop: Constellation.

European Squadron (North Atlantic, North Sea):

Frigate: Niagara.
Screw driven sloops: Kearsarge and Sacramento.

Africa Squadron:

Sloop: Constellation until 1862, then assigned to European Squadron.

Pacific Squadron:

Barques: Saranac, Fredonia, and Massachusetts.
Side-wheel sloop: Saginaw.
Screw driven vessels: Lancaster and Wyoming.
Double-ended gunboat: Wateree.
Side-wheel gunboat: Monongo.
Storeships: Falmouth and Relief.
Sloops: John Adams, Jamestown, and St. Mary’s.

Receiving ships:

These vessels served as basic training centers and never left port:

Allegheny, at Baltimore, MD.
North Carolina, at New York, NY.
Ohio, at Boston, MA.
Potomac, at Pensacola, FL.
Princeton, at Philadelphia, PA.
Clara Rolson and Grampus, assigned to the Mississippi River Squadron.
John Hancock, at San Francisco, CA.

Special Squadron:

This group was formed in January 1864 to hunt Confederate commerce raiders:

Steamers: Mohican, Sacramento, Michigan, Wachusett, and Iroquois.
Steam sloop: Kearsarge.
Support ship: Onward.
Sloop: St. Louis.

Confederate:

The CSA was not a seafaring region to begin with, but they had to in order to keep the field armies supplied. With this in mind, there were a few miracles, such as CSS Virginia, an ironclad worship, or the H. L. Hunley, a submarine. They did, however, had these insurmountable disadvantages:

Lack of industry: with one major factory and a few minor ones, the industrial base was just not there. Iron for cladding was rolled at the Tredegar Iron Works at Richmond, VA, usually from salvaged iron, railroad rails, or even church bells.

Lack of facilities: The North had all the proper naval facilities, even in their territory. They briefly held the Norfolk Navy Yard long enough to build the Virginia, but had to abandon it. They made up for that by using fields, swamps, and inlets for construction sites.

Lack of trained personnel: Only 321 officers had left the US Navy for Southern service and almost no enlisted. The officers made a good core for the embryonic service, but the enlisted force had to be started from scratch.

Lack of ships: since there was not a wholesale defection of Navy vessels, the CS Navy had to build that from scratch as well. CS President Davis started that by authorizing Letters of Marque and Reprisal, allowing privately owned ships to be used in military operations against Union shipping. These were considered pirates by the Federals and their crews subject to the death penalty, but not many cases were prosecuted. From these privateers came the commerce raiders that were the bane of the Union.

Ships basically had to be either built, bought, of finagled from foreign sources, or locally produced by rather inventive methods.

All of this, under the auspices of Secretary of the Navy, Stephen Mallory.

Besides commerce raiding, the CS Navy was primarily a costal and river operations force, using small vessels to keep things going.

The vessels mentioned were with these particular fleets at one time or another. Some were destroyed or captured. Others were captured Union naval or civilian vessels.

Texas Costal Flotilla:

Gunboats: Bayou City, Clifton, General Bee, Josiah H. Bell, Mary Hill, and Uncle Ben.
Steamers: A. S. Ruthven, Era No. 3, Florida, Grand Bay, Island City, Jeff Davis, John F. Carr, Lone Star, Lucy Gwinn, Neptune, Roebuck, and Sun Flower.
Sail vessels: Breaker, Dodge, Elma, Fanny Morgan, George Buckhart, Julia A. Hodges, Lecompt, Royal Yacht, and Velocity.

Mississippi Defense Fleet:

Ironclad: Louisiana
Gunboats: A. B. Seger, Anglo-Norman, Anglo-Saxon, Arrow, Barataria, Calhoun, Diana, Dollie Webb, General Quitman, Governor Moore, Ivy, Jackson, A. J. Cotton, James L. Day, McRae, Mobile, Oregon, Pamlico, Tuscaora, Webb, and Carondelet.
Spar Torpedo Boat: Pioneer.
Rams: Colonel Lovell, Defiance, General Beauregard, General Bragg, General Breckinridge, General Earl Van Dorn, General Lovell, General M. Jeff Thompson, General Sterling Price, General Sumter, Little Rebel, Resolute, Stonewall Jackson, Warrior, and Web.
Sail vessels: Coryphus, Washington.
Tugboats: Bell, Algerine, and Boston.
Steamers: Dan, Darby, Empire Parish, General Quitman, Gossamer, Hart, Landis, Mosher, Music, Orizaba, St. Philip, Star, Texas, and W. Burton.
Side-wheel vessel: Phoenix.
Floating Battery: New Orleans.

Mississippi River Fleet:
Ironclads: Arkansas, and Missouri.
Gunboats: General Polk, Grand Duke, J. A. Cotton, Livingston, Maurepas, Pontchartrain, Queen of the West, St. Mary, Slidell, and Tom Sugg.
Steamers: Admiral, Alfred Robb, Argo, Argosy, Argus, B. M. Moore, Beauregard, Ben McCullough, Berwick Bay, Bracelet, Charm, Cheney, Clara Dolson, Cotton Plant, Countess, De Sota, Dew Drop, Doubloon, Dr. Batey, Dunbar, Edward J. Gay, Elmira, Emma Bett, Era No. 5, Fairplay, Fred Kennett, Frolic, Gordon Grant, Grampus, Grand Era, Gray Cloud, H. D. Mears, H. R. W. Hill, Hartford City, Hope, J. D. Clark, J. D. Swain, Jeff Davis, John Simonds, John Walsh, Julius, Kanawha Valley, Kaskaskia, Kentucky, Lady Walton, Linn Boyd, Louis D’Or, Louisville, Magenta, Magnolia, Mars, Mary E. Keene, Mary Patterson, May, Merite, Mohawk, Moro, Muscle, Natchez, Nelson, New National, Nina Simmes, Ohio Belle, Osceola, Pargoud, Paul Jones, Prince, Prince of Wales, R. J. Lockland, Red Rover, Republic, Robert Fulton, St. Francis No. 3, Sallie Wood, Sam Kirkman, Samuel Orr, Scotland, Sharp, Sovereign, Starlight, T. D. Hine, 35th Parallel, Trent, Twilight, Vicksburg, Victoria, Volunteer, W. W. Crawford, Wade Water Belle, White Cloud, and Yazoo.

Mobile Defense Squadron:
Ironclads: Huntsville, Tuscaloosa and Tennessee II.
Gunboats: Gaines, Morgan, Baltic, and Selma.
Steamers: Alert, Crescent, Dick Keys, and James Battle.
Spar Torpedo Boats: St. Patrick, Mobile II, and Gunnison.
Cutter: Lewis Cass.
Transport: Iron King.
Tender: Swan.
Floating Batteries: Danube and Phoenix.
Receiving Ship: Dalman.
Pensacola Defense Squadron:
Steamers: Governor Milton, Berosa, Neafie, Helen, and Spray.
Gunboat: Chattahoochee.
Transport: Turel.
Sloop: Helen.
Storeship: Bradford.

Savannah Defense Squadron:
Ironclads: Atlanta and Savannah.
Gunboats: Macon and Isondiga.
Steamers: Amazon, Beauregard, and Jeff Davis.
Tenders: Firefly and Resolute.
Transports: General Lee, Ida, Leesburg, Robert Habersham, and Talomico.
Sail Vessel: Gallatin.
Receiving Ships: Sampson, and Savannah.
Floating Battery: Georgia.

Charleston Defense Squadron:
Ironclads: Chicora, Palmetto State, Charleston, and Columbia.
Gunboat: Peedee.
Steamers: Chesterfield, Darlington, and Lady Davis.
Spar Torpedo Boat: David, Midge, Torch, Numbers 1 through 8, and H. L. Hunley (officially listed as a spar torpedo boat, but this was a submarine).
Sail Vessel: Petrel.
Tenders: Catawba, Aid, and General Clinch.
Transports: Etiwan, Huntress, Marion, Planter, Queen Mah, Sumter, and Transport.
Receiving Ship: Indian Chief.

North Carolina Coast and River Fleet:
Ironclads: Albemarle, Nuese, North Carolina, and Raleigh.
Gunboats: Fanny, Ellis, Seabird, Uncle Ben, and Yadkin.
Steamers: Appomattox, Bombshell, Clarrendon, Cotton Plant, Curlew, Currituck, Dolly, Egypt Mills, Equator, Forrest, Governor Morehead, Junaluska, Weldon N. Edwards, and Winslow.
Tender: Caswell.
Floating Battery: Artic.
Transports: Albemarle, Colonel Hill, Hawley, and Wilson.
Sail Vessels: Black Warrior, Jeff Davis, Manassas, and Renshaw.
Storeship: M. C. Etheridge.

Virginia Coast and River Fleet (except James River):
Ironclad: Virginia.
Spar Torpedo Boats: Scorpion and Squib.
Gunboats: Jamestown, Satellite, and Teaser.
Steamers: Curtis peck, General Scott, City of Richmond, Harmony, Logan, Northampton, Rappahannock, Reliance: Roanoke, Rondout, Towns, and Young America.
Tugboats: John B. White and Pohowatan.
Sail Vessels: Beauregard, Duane, and Germantown.
Receiving Vessel: Confederate States.

James River Squadron:
Ironclads: Virginia II, Richmond, and Fredericksburg.
Gunboats: Beauford, Drewry, Hampton, Nansemond, Raleigh/Roanoke, Patrick Henry (CS Naval Academy), and Torpedo.
Steamers: Allison, Beaufort, Schultz, Seaboard, and Shrapnel.
Spar Torpedo Boats: Hornet and Wasp.
Torpedo Boat Tender: Torpedo.
Sail Vessel: Gallego.

Commerce Raiders: Alabama, Alexandria, Florida, Georgia, Georgiana, Nashville, Rappahannock, Shenandoah, Sumter, Tallahassee, Tacony, and Tuscaloosa.

CS Government Blockade Runners: Bat, Deer, Owl, Stag, Lark, Wren, Condor, Falcon, Flamingo, Ptarmigan, Arizona, Atlantic, Austin, Beauregard, Bahama, Bermuda, Colonel Lamb, Hope, Cornubia, Don, Granite City, Greyhound, Harriet Pickney, Juno, Laurel, Lynx, Magnolia, Matagorda, Merrimac, Phantom, Robert E. Lee, Theodora, Victoria, and William G. Hawes.

Reconstruction

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There can be no look at the Civil War without looking at its aftermath. It was not that both sides turned in their arms, one in victory and the other in defeat, and went home to their shops and farms, which is what the common soldier wanted to do, but what to do politically with the former CSA.

President Lincoln wanted a kind and gentle reunion of the states, problem was, he was dead from an assassin’s bullet. His successor, Andrew Johnson, was a War Democrat who was on the Union ticket as Vice-President until that bulled thrust him into the center of the post-Civil War maelstrom.

Johnson, former Military Governor of Tennessee, had some of his own ideas that would have played better in the South than in the North in some matters. On the subject of the recently free slaves, he would accept that, but was against equal rights for African-Americans. He also wanted to let the states handle their own affairs.

This did not sit well with the most powerful faction in Congress, the Radical Republicans. They wanted harsh measures placed on the South, even demoting those states to Territorial Status. Even so, they did push through a plan to split the former CSA into military districts and to have the US Army maintain control.

District 1: Virginia, Commanded by Major General John Schofield.

District 2: North Carolina and South Carolina, Commanded by Major General Daniel Sickles.

District 3: Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, Commanded by Major General John Pope

District 4: Mississippi and Arkansas, Commanded by Major General Edward Ord

District 5: Louisiana and Texas, Commanded by Major General Philip Sheridan, who also had the job of securing the border with Imperial Mexico.

Tennessee, Johnson’s home state, was not in any district.

Congress and President Johnson were already on a collision course over several issues:

Johnson had issued a proclamation allowing whites-only conventions to elect members of Congress from the South. Congress retaliated by refusing to seat those elected.

Congress also passed laws (over the President’s veto) to strengthen the Freedmen’s Bureau, an organization dedicated to help freed slaves adjust to their new life. Part of that help was to establish small farms, which ended up under the control of landlords (usually their former masters) who saddled the African-Americans with a debt that few could repay. Other services included education and legal help.
There were also plans in the works for readmitting the Southern States; all they had to do was to ratify the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution. As soon as that was accomplished, the state was readmitted, but the military government would still be in place.

1865: South Carolina, the cradle of the rebellion, was readmitted.

1866: Tennessee followed suit.

1868: North Carolina, Florida, Alabama, and Arkansas were back in.

1870: Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas were finally reunited.

Another sticking point was what to do with former Confederates. Most were receiving pardons in exchange for swearing a loyalty oath to the United States. Many of the Radical Republicans wanted men like former CS President Jefferson Davis and former General Robert E. Lee tried for treason. Davis was already in jail after being captured during his attempt to flee the country. Lee had returned to private life and would accept an offer to become president of Washington College in Lexington, VA. Neither would come to trial, but Davis would suffer two years behind bars before his release.

Eventually, Congress voided the Constitutions of the southern states, instead mandating that new conventions, this time staffed with African-Americans and Whites who did not support the Confederacy, elect new members of Congress. This would be a condition of lifting the military rule. As a result, two Senators and 15 Representatives were African-American.

Things finally came to a head when Congress passed a law limiting President Johnson’s ability to control the action of the military in the South, this being in response to Johnson preventing military commander from protecting African-Americans from assault. Johnson responded by firing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, a Radical Republican. In February of 1868, Congress responded by drawing up, and then approving, Articles of Impeachment. This is a Constitutionally approved method to remove a President, believed to be guilty of “high crimes and misdemeanors,” from office. When the House of Representatives approved the articles, the Senate moved to hold the formal trial. When the final Senate vote was called, it fell one vote short of the 2/3 needed to find Johnson guilty, and remove him from office. This did have an affect on the Election of 1868, keeping the Republicans in the White House with the election of General of the Armies Ulysses S. Grant.

Grant continued the policies of the Radicals, pushing the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which granted US Citizenship to African-Americans, the 14th Amendment, which prohibited states from limiting the rights of citizens, and the 15th Amendment, which granted all male citizens (including African-Americans) the right to vote.

All of these rules and requirements wore hard on former Confederate citizens; these changes that were overturning their world was enforced by the bayonets of garrison troops, many of then African-Americans, and assisted by Northerners and a few African-Americans acting as agents. They were known by their luggage, which was made of the same material that carpets were made of. These agents were called “Carpetbaggers” as a term of derision.

Some Southerners decided on direct action, starting with assaulting Blacks whenever possible, and then banding into groups to terrorize and intimidate African-Americans from exercising their new rights. The most notorious of these was the Ku Klux Klan, with former Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest a reputed founder. These groups launched several attempts to stop African-Americans from voting, which resulted in several states imposing martial law and using their militias to attack the Klan. Congress responded by making it a Federal offense to prevent someone from voting. President Grant used that law in 1871 to enforce voting rights and to target Klan members in south Carolina.

During Grant’s second term, the tide was turning against harsh measures against the South in the hopes that Westward migration would help meld the two regions. Also, the Grant Administration was beset with scandals that lessened its effectiveness. A crisis in South Carolina resulted in Grant sending in Federal troops, but it was seen as unpopular.

Even though the 15th Amendment had been approved, many Northern states had instituted literacy tests on order to keep several minority groups from voting, a measure that would soon take place in the South.

Reconstruction came to an end with the Election of 1877. Rutherford B. Hayes, a former Union general, was declared the winner of a highly contested election by agreeing to remove all Federal troops from the South. The military governments were also being disbanded and the states returned to civilian control:

1869: Tennessee and Virginia

1870: North Carolina.

1871: Georgia.

1873: Texas.

1874: Alabama and Arkansas.

1876: Mississippi and South Carolina.

1877: Louisiana and Florida.

However, without the influence of Federal troops and other Federal intervention, the Southern States soon voted in Democrat majorities and the few gains that African-Americans had made were quashed, not to be revived for nearly a century.
The Union was once again whole, a set of problems was solved, but a new set of problems was there. These problems would not be addressed until the 20th Century.

Medical

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At the beginning of the war, the US Military Medical Department consisted of one Colonel, the Surgeon General, thirty Majors, Surgeons, and 84 Captains and below, the Assistant Surgeons. This was not even close to being adequate for the massive army that was needed to put down the rebellion. Add to this the fact that several doctors were from the South and therefore going with their seceded states, and the US Army had a problem operating a Medical Department at first. Of course, the CS Medical Department had to start from scratch.

The Union’s doctors was led at the beginning by Thomas Lawson, a veteran of the War of 1812, and one that had a reputation of being a martinet. He also was dying of cancer, so the Surgeon General position became vacant very fast.

As far as appointing doctors were concerned, it was left to the states to commission those who wanted to be in the Medical Service.

The thing was, many of these doctors had just graduated from medical school, at the time not the eight-year course of study, complete with grueling exams and several years residency to top it off with. These medical students had two, three, and maybe four years worth of education.

It also did not help that many medicines used at the time were just as likely to kill as heal. Medicines such as blue mass and calomel contained mercury, a toxic metal.

Medical science was not complete; people knew that there was a connection between sanitation and health, but did not know why. Doctors knew that a clean camp had healthier troops in it rather than a dirty camp. It was that the discovery of bacteria laid years in the future. Doctors also had to put up with regular outbreaks of malaria and yellow fever, but could not figure how it was spread or that there seemed that there was a “season” for these diseases. That would not be discovered until the Spanish-American War and the discovery by Army Surgeon Walter Reed that mosquitoes were the ones spreading the disease.

Another thing that could have been considered was water sources, which were mainly streams and rivers. There were no clean water sources, other than wells, and filtration and boiling water were know, but seldom practiced.

As a matter of fact, the basic health advice of the 1860’s seemed to be thus:

1. Avoid use of ardent spirits (alcoholic beverages).

2. Do not drink very cold water. Cool water is best.

3. Tea, coffee and chocolate are best at meals.

4. Do not overeat and limit between meal eating.

5. Wear flannel in all weather conditions.

6. Wash clothes regularly or hang them in the sun.

7. Have a bed of hay, straw, or other such material for sleeping on. Avoid bare ground.

8. Sleep as much as possible.

9. Make sure there is a fire after rain and damp weather.

10. Wash entire body whenever possible with soap and water.

11. Wear a white flannel around the bowels if disease prevails (the book never said which disease).

12. Keep in open air but not in direct sunlight.

13. Wear shoes with thick soles.

14. Wear a silk handkerchief in your hat in order to prevent sun stroke.

15. Never eat a heavy meal before a march or a battle.

16. Coffee is a great restorative after a march or battle.

17. Never sleep without a cover.

18. If you must drink brandy, do so after a march or battle.

19. Drink as little as possible, even water.

20. If a wound is jetting blood, that means an artery is cut. Tie a handkerchief between the wound and the heart or else the wounded man will die. Use a stick or other thin device to tighten the handkerchief.

21. For a wound in the abdomen, make the wounded man comfortable, for this is fatal.

22. A full beard will give protection against dust and cold. Also will aid perspiration.

23. Avoid fats.

24. Keep your hair cut short and wash the scalp every morning.

25. Wear wool socks and loose shoes.

26. Keep toe and finger nails cut.

27. Wash feet in the evening and the hands and face in the mornings. This will keep the skin soft.

28. When hurt, the best position is on the back with the head elevated.

29. Put a coat on after a march to avoid a cold.

30. Get water to an injured person immediately. If you have no vessel, tie your shirt into a bag and use that.

31. If you are wet, keep moving and you will be all right.

32. If your cooking water comes from a pond or a sluggish stream, boil it, let it cool, and then stir it to get oxygen into it.

33. If you wear garish clothes in battle, you will be more likely to be hit.

34. Envelop a canteen with a wet woolen cloth to chill the water.

35. During a rest stop in the march, lie down. You will get more rest.

36. A tablespoon of cornmeal in a glass of water will aid in “evacuation of the bowels.”

37. Loose bowels is the first step toward cholera and the remedy is a diet of boiled rice. If it’s an advanced case, wrap the abdomen tightly in flannel.

Some of these “cures” and advice often contributed to killing the patient. For example: Confederate General Thomas Jackson was recovering from having his left arm amputated following his being wounded at the Battle of Chancellorsville. He had a stomach complaint that was remedied by wrapping the abdomen with cold, wet towels. This caused the pneumonia that killed him.

The other thing to consider was the advancement of military hardware. Thirty years previous, the US Army’s main long arm was a smoothbore musket that took a ball slightly smaller than the barrel, resulting in low accuracy over long ranges. A French officer named Claude Minie developed a bullet that was cone shaped with a base that expanded to fit the barrel when the powder charge was fired. This, plus the addition of rifling and a percussion ignition system, and the accuracy and lethality of the long arm increased dramatically. A charging column of infantry could now be hit at longer ranges with relative ease.

When a Minie ball struck a person, the damage was horrific. The bullet did not have a metal jacket around it, so the lead cone turned into a mushroom upon entering the body, causing more damage. This round also traveled at speeds slowed than sound, so heat was not generated as in today’s supersonic bullets. The slow, tumbling, lead mushrooms smashed organs and tore blood vessels, making death almost certain.
When the round struck bone, it was really bad; the bone did not break, but shattered laterally. This is why most led and arm wounds resulted in amputation.

A head shot was almost instantly fatal.

Unless an arm or leg wound was in the muscle, the limb was usually lost.

A hit in either the upper or lower torso meant death, but slow and very painful. It was possible to survive that, but it would not have been easy.

Another thing to consider was infection, foreign objects, such as the cloth of a uniform, was dragged into the wound, causing complications. This happened to Union Major General Winfield Hancock. On Day Three of the Battle of Gettysburg, he was on a horse overseeing the defenses at Cemetery Ridge and observing the approaching Pickett-Pettigrew-Trimble charge. During the exchange of musket fire, a Minie bullet struck the pommel of his saddle, tearing off a small nail and a bit of the leather, and drove the mess into Hancock’s right hip. The wound became infected and the resulting fever almost killed him. To get him on the road to recovery, an ingenious doctor placed a saddle on a sawhorse, and then he placed Hancock on the saddle. After figuring out the angle of the bullet’s trajectory, he was able to probe the wound with a small hook, finding and extracting the nail, which allowed the wound to be drained. Even with that help, Hancock never fully recovered from the wound.

As the war went on, a system of getting the wounded to medical attention was developed. For this, an Ambulance Corps was established so patients could be moved quickly from the battlefield to the field hospital. More often than not, the wounded soldier was either carried by friends, or stretcher bearers who were made up of musicians. There was a position where the ambulance could be found, but the usual case was that the wounded soldier was carried all the way. Sadly, causality collection was not as efficient as claimed, resulting in wounded soldiers lying on the battlefield for as many as 48 hours, many of dying from wounds that would have been survivable if the soldier was taken to the field hospital.

Upon arrival at the field hospital, the wounded was subjected to a triage method that divided them into at least three categories:

Those with minor wounds who could wait on treatment.

Those with wounds that are survival with treatment (this was usually the amputations).

Those with wounds that ware mortal. No treatment was prescribed but to make the patient comfortable as possible.

These hospitals were set up in farmhouses, barns, or any shelter that came to hand. The conditions on such places were not ideal, with surgeries being performed on planks laid over sawhorses, or even a door. The surgery “table” might be washed between operations, but that was not guaranteed. The surgeon’s instruments, the scalpels, bone saws, and probes, were usually not sterilized, so infections were passed on from patient to patient. The surgeon’s collection of instruments more resembled a carpenter’s toolbox than a doctor’s kit. Ether and chloroform was used to put the patient to sleep, but if that was in short supply, that did not stop the doctor. A skilled physician could complete an amputation within 15 minutes, and then be ready for the next one. The limbs were supposed to be burned, but more often than not, they were piled outside. One Union soldier’s account told of pigs eating the amputated limbs.

After treatment, the patient could either be returned to duty (minor wounds), or sent out of the area to a regional military hospital. If possible, the soldier could be sent home to fully recover (called recovery leave).

Both sides organized large scale hospitals in order to care for the wounded. Union hospitals were established in Washington D.C. as well as Nashville, TN, Jefferson, IN, and many other cities in the North. Washington alone boasted 25 hospitals, both military and private. Add to this the convalescent camps, and the Union had a somewhat decent system in order to treat the wounded.

One innovation that resulted was a Nursing Corps that was staffed by females. Women were already working as government clerks, but wanted to do more.

Louisa May Alcott, who would write Little Women, worked in a hospital.

Dorothea Dix, a social activist, was instrumental in recruiting women for the Nursing Corps. She did have some rather peculiar qualifications, no women under 30 and they could not be pretty.

Clara Barton did not qualify to work with Dix, but that did not stop her from attaining a position at another hospital. She would go on to create the American Red Cross. She worked with another nurse, Susie King Taylor, who became the only African-American to publish a memoir of her war experiences.

Mary Ann “Mother” Bickerdyke was so successful in the Western Theatre that by order of Major General William Sherman, she was the only woman allowed in his hospitals.

Another nurse, this one male, was the writer Walt Whitman, who worked in several hospitals after nursing his wounded brother back to health.

Not only there were women nurses, but at least one woman doctor, Dr. Mary Walker.

The Confederates were not without their own system of helping their wounded. They were hampered with lack of supplies and facilities. They did manage to create a model hospital, Chimborazo, at Richmond, VA.

Southern nurses included Kate Cummings, who defied Southern attitudes towards women to become a nurse, as well as Sally Louisa Tomkins, who was commissioned a Captain in the Confederate Army for her work.

With resources being stretched, it soon fell on private organizations to pitch in and help. The U.S. Sanitary Commission and the U.S. Christian Commission brought food, clothing, and comfort to troops in the field and in the hospital, even running several private hospitals. Several states also formed organizations so that their troops could be helped.

Sadly, beyond a few private organizations, there were no Sanitary Commissions in the CSA.

Of course with remedies such as these, it was a wonder anybody survived:

1. Thieves Vinegar: Take a handful each of rue, sage, mint, rosemary, wormwood, and lavender and out into a gallon of vinegar to infuse. Let sit in a warm place for four days. Strain the mixture and then add one ounce of camphor. Wash the face and hands with it before exposure in a hospital or sick room. It is called Thieves Vinegar because of a legend of thieves using this liquid to protect them as they plundered the houses of people sick with Bubonic Plague at Marseilles, France.

2. Prevention of Mosquito Bites: Mix oil of pennyroyal with olive oil and spread on the skin to repel mosquitoes.

3. Sprains and Bruises: mix one pint of train oil, ½ pound of stone pitch, ½ pound of resin, ½ pound of beeswax, and ½ pound of stale tallow. Boil for ½ an hour and skin off any scum. Pour liquid into cups to cool. When needed, spread it on a cloth and apply it to the sprain or bruise.

In Paris, the treatment for a sprain was to have the doctor grease his thumbs and press them on the sprain for ½ hour. Within one day, the patient was relieved.

A specific treatment for a sprained ankle was to wash the ankle with salted water and keep the foot as cold as possible. Elevate the foot, don’t eat too much, and take a “cooling medicine” until the sprain is cured.

Another cure for a bruise was to bath the area with water and apply a paper or cloth spread with treacle.

4. Stings: Take a wine glass of vinegar and mix in common (baking) soda. Apply it to the affected areas.

Another treatment was to apply a plaster of moistened salt. This was to draw out the venom of a bee or wasp sting.

5. Blisters on the feet: Rub the feed with spirits mixed with tallow from a candle.

6. Dirt in the Eye: Place a finger on the affected patients cheek and slightly pull down, exposing the area under the eye. For over the eye, use a knitting needle over the eyelid to hold it up. Use a silk handkerchief to remove the dirt. Bathe the eye and have the patient stay out of the sun for the day. If there is any inflammation, have the patient take a purgative and apply a cooling lotion.

7. Frostbite: For the feet, apply deer’s marrow to the affected area.

For other areas, take chrome yellow and hog’s lard and mix them into an ointment. Apply to affected areas after warming the ointment.

8. Coughs: Take one teacup of molasses, add two tablespoons of vinegar and bring to a simmer. Then add three teaspoons of paregoric and as much refined niter as you can place on a breakfast knife. Take two or three teaspoons before bed and one of two during the day to dispel coughs.

9. Nosebleed: Blow powdered gum Arabic or alum up the nose with a quill to stop the bleeding.

10. Headaches: Use epodeldoe, spirits of wine, and sal ammoniac applied as a lotion to the forehead.

11. Bleeding Wounds: Apply flour and lint to the wound.

12. Infectious wounds: Apply sugar to the wound. Another procedure is to wash the wound with wine, then apply sugar.

13. Warts: Wet the wart with tobacco juice and apply chalk. Another method is to rub the area with fresh beef.

14. Corns: Mix and melt together two ounces of beeswax and two ounces of ammonia. Then add ½ ounce of verdigris. Spread on linen and apply it to the corn.

15. Bunions: If caught early, bind the foot tightly to prevent bunion growth. If inflames, a poultice of twelve grains of iodine and a ½ ounce of lard can be applied. This should be done two to three times daily. If the bunion is enlarged, apply salad oil. Wear lose shoes or slippers.

16. Boils: Treatment is a poultice of molasses or honey mixed with flour. Apply until it disappears. If the boil is painful, a poultice of bread, milk, volatile liniment and laudanum should be used.

Or, when one was sick, these nutritional tidbits:

1. Panada: Take some bread slices, cut off the crust, and boil then in water. After five minutes, take out the bread and pound it in a bowl, adding a little of the water it was boiled in. Mix in butter, sugar, and nutmeg to taste.

2. Toast Water: Take one slice of bread and toast it. Lay the toast in a bowl and pour on boiling water. Cover bowl with a saucer and let cool.

3. Beef Tea: Take one pound of beef and slice it into thin strips. Add salt and boil it in water for an hour. Pour through a strainer into a cup and serve.

4. Broth: Take meat (chicken, beef, or veal), add two tablespoons of rice and boil it until tender. If needed, serve the broth fifteen minutes after boiling, otherwise cover and keep overnight.

5. Water Gruel: Start with two tablespoons of cornmeal or oatmeal with three tablespoons of water. Mix a pint and a half of boiling water slowly to the mixture. Once everything is mixed, put the whole mixture in a skillet and boil it for thirty minutes. Skim the mixture and season with salt. Sugar and nutmeg can also be used.

6. Rice Gruel: Mix one tablespoon of rice, one and a half pints of water, and either a cinnamon stick or a lemon peel. Boil it until soft and add a pint of milk. Strain the mixture and add salt, sugar, nutmeg, and butter to taste.

7. Milk Porridge: Same as the gruel but with equal parts of flour, cornmeal, milk and water. The flour, cornmeal and water is cooked first. Then the milk is added prior to boiling.

8. Mutton Custard for Bowel complaints: Take two ounces of mutton suet and shred it. Add cinnamon and nutmeg and boil it in a pint of milk. Skim off any scum that rises. Take a half teacup of this three or four times a day.

9. Bread Jelly: Boil a quart of water and set it aside. Take a 1/3 loaf of bread, cut off the crust, and toast it. Pot the toast into the water and boil it slowly until the liquid turns into jelly. Strain the mixture and set it aside. When used, sweeten it with sugar and a little lemon peel.

10. Wine Whey: Boil a ½ pint of milk. Add two glasses of wine and a teaspoon of sugar. After the mixture boils, take it off the fire and set aside. Curds (solids) will form and sink to the bottom of the pot. Pour the whey (liquid) into another pot and add boiling water. Add sugar to taste. Use in cases of typhus.

11. Calves Feet Broth: Take two calves feet and boil them in three quarts of water. When water is half boiled away, take off the fat, season with salt, and serve in a teacup with a spoonful of wine.

12. Rice Jelly: Take ¼ pound of rice, mix in ½ pound of sugar, and add enough water to cover it. Boil until it becomes glutinous. Strain it and set it aside. Season to taste.

13. Hot Lemonade: Cut up a whole lemon, add a teacup of sugar and boiling water. Great for colds.

Concerning the mess:

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1. Bread must be fully baked and eaten cold. The soup must be boiled for five hours before serving. Vegetables (when there were any) must be cooked until soft and digestible.

2. Messes are prepared by squads assigned to kitchen police for that day.

3. Ensure that all cooking vessels are properly cleaned.

4. The cooks are responsible for feeding prisoners.

5. No one is allowed in the kitchen area unless authorized.

6. An NCO must be in charge at all times.

Other things:

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1. Cartridge boxes and bayonet scabbards will be polished with blacking, not varnish.

2. Mark haversacks with the letter of the company and the number of the soldier.
(EX: C 57)

3. Mark the flap of the knapsack with the unit designation, and company letter, and the soldier’s number. (EX: 69NY
C 57)

4. Haversacks and canteens will be worn on the left side, canteen over haversack.

5. Private soldiers will wear uniform at all times, other clothing is not authorized.

6. Soldiers will be issued one plate, one cup, one fork, one spoon, and one knife for messing purposes.

7. NCOs and soldiers are to pay compliments to Navy and Marine officers.

8. NCOs and soldiers are to render customs and courtesies to any and all officers above them.

9. Salutes: With arms: bring the musket to right shoulder arms, then bring the left arm across the chest, touching the musket.
Without arms: bring the right hand to the corner of the visor, palm facing out.

10. If seated, the NCO or soldier will rise on the approach of an officer and render a salute.

Some things that Officers should know:

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1. If an officer is given temporary command, changing the chain of command was not authorized without the approval of the next higher commander.

2. If an officer takes permanent command of a unit, the outgoing commander will turn over all orders in force, public property, and unit funds.

3. An officer should not correct non-commissioned officers in front of privates.

4. Captains and Lieutenants are responsible for the upkeep and cleanliness of their company areas. They are also responsible for the cleanliness of the men, their uniforms, equipments, and weapons.

5. Officers will be in proper uniform at all times.

6. Company officers and higher will frequently inspect the kitchen areas to ensure sanitation.

7. The Commanding Officer (the Colonel) will set the schedule for the duty day while in camp.

8. No officer could inhabit a house, although vacant, without permission of the brigade or division commanders.

9. Officers in command of the picket line will inspect the line frequently.

10. Officers were responsible for controlling the men while on the march.

Care of Weapons (according to the Revised Regulations for the Army, 1862):

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1. All arms will be kept in the condition that they were issued. Breakdown of weapons are not allowed except when authorized by a commissioned officer.

2. After firing, wash out the barrel, then run a cloth down the barrel in order to dry it. After cleaning, put a tampion in the muzzle to keep dirt and water out.

3. Do not have arms loaded in camp unless authorized.

4. Ammunition will be inspected as frequently as possible. Any unauthorized expenditure of rounds will result in the cost of the rounds being docked from the soldier’s pay.

5. Do not mix blank and ball rounds.

6. Expose ammunition to the sun to keep them dry.

Diversions:

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1. Card games were popular. Poker, euchre, spades, and other card games were popular. Some were known to throw away the cards just before a battle. If the soldier was killed, he did not want his parents to know he played cards, which was considered a great sin at the time. If the troop survived the battle, he took the first opportunity to search for his cards. (Usually, he could buy a new pack at the sutlers.)

2. Board Games: games like checkers and chess helped pass the time in camp.

3. Cockroach races: place two cockroaches in the middle of a tin plate. After the bets were taken in, the roaches are released. First roach to the edge wins.

4. Dice: dice was rolled and winners and losers were determined by what numbers was rolled. This was considered a particularly evil vice, so much that Confederate General Thomas Jackson authorized severe punishments for his soldiers who were caught plating dice.

5. Baseball: As mentioned else ware, Union Major General Abner Doubleday did not invent baseball. There was already a small league in existence, but he might have had a hand in some of the modern rules. There were games between companies, or between regiments. There could also have been the occasional game between Union and Confederate regiments, but that could not be confirmed. A friendly game between teams that would see the next day trying to kill each other.

6. Reading: 10 cents at the sutlers could buy a “dime novel” for passing away the time. Other merchants would sell newspapers from New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago, sometimes as recent as two days old.

7. Letters: A few cents at the sutlers would but you stationery, envelopes, and postage to send a letter home. If one could not write, a more literate member of the unit could make a few cents writing letters for his mates.

8. Horse Races: A good past time, as well was keeping the horses on shape. The most famous example was the Irish Brigade’s Great Steeple Chase of St. Patrick’s Day, 1862.

Tents (or other shelters):

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1. Two-man: each man carried one-half of the shelter, one pole, and some lines. When reaching camp, two would pair off and build the shelter.

2. Sibley: conical tent with an opening at the top so that a stove pipe could be accommodated. Sleeps 6-8.

3. There was also a large, rectangular tent that slept 8, or one Commanding Officer.

4. For winter encampment, a wood floor and short walls would serve as a foundation for the rectangular tent. A stove would be placed in the middle of the floor for heating.

5. If the winter encampment was in a heavily wooded area, log cabins would be built. High ranking officers (colonels and generals) could requisition a farm house for quarters.

Duty Day

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1. The duty day starts when the bugle or drum “reveille” is played. This is usually at sunrise, or just after. In hot climates, coffee should be served in order to prevent malaria.

2. The troops will rise, wash, dress, and present them selves for roll call. The roll is called, absences noted, and those who identify themselves as ill are sent to the Surgeon.

3. Work details are then assigned; camp police (keeping the camp clean), kitchen police (assisting the cook), guard duty, sink duty (cleaning the area around the latrines), etc. Also times for drilling are announced.

4. The bugle or drum call “peas on trencher” announces breakfast.

5. Following breakfast, the work duties should commence.

6. The call “troop” signifies guard mount (beginning sentry duty).

7. To bring the regiment together, sound the “assembly.” This is usually for drilling and dress parade.

8. During the duty day, time should be devoted for individual equipment (musket maintenance, leather accouterments, uniforms, etc.).

9. When the call “roast beef” is called, its dinnertime.

10. All soldiers should be accounted for around the time “retreat” is sounded. They should be in quarters, unless on picket duty, when “tattoo” is sounded.

11. When “taps” (otherwise known as “Butterfield’s Lullaby”) is sounded, all lights will be out and the troops asleep.

Camp Setup

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At the end of a march or battle, it is important that the troops are encamped as quickly as possible. This would insure that the unit is fully accounted fore, as well as providing a dwelling place for the soldiers.

1. The idea area for a camp is a meadow with a slight slope for drainage; a hillside would be better, but not too steep.

2. An area with a stream or river nearby is most ideal. A spot upstream for drinking water, another area for washing and bathing, and a spot downstream for the sinks (latrine). The sinks should not be in an area that would pollute camps downstream. It that becomes a problem, dig a trench at the edge of the camp for that purpose. (It was known that there was a connection between cleanliness and disease, but did not know why.)

3. It would be a good idea to locate the field kitchen across the camp from the sinks. This area should not be near trees in order to cut the risk of fire.

4. Upon arrival at the site, post a company as camp guard in order to prevent unauthorized departures.

5. Weapons should be stacked in 3s or 4s and a guard placed on them.

6. Spots should be located for the Quartermaster and the Surgeon and their tents set up.

7. Tents for the Colonel, the Lieutenant Colonel, and the Major should be placed so they can overlook the camp. The Regimental Flags will be placed at the Colonel’s tent.

8. The tents of the private soldiers should be arranged in companies, with the Captain’s, Lieutenant’s, and Sergeant’s tents along the outside of the company area. The Private’s tents will fill the interior.

9. There should be a “street” between the soldier’s tents and the Commanding Officer’s. there should also be a large field for drilling, roll call, sick call, etc.

10. Once the tents are pitched, trenches should be dug to provide additional drainage.

Did the South have a chance?

2007-08-14T13:20:00.000-06:00

The North had a solid industrial base, with about 100,000 factories and 1,100,000 workers. The South had 20,000 factories and 100,000 workers.

Union war material lost on the battlefield could be replaced within a day. The South had to make do with captured material at times.

The North had 20,000 of railroads to move goods and passengers. The South had only 9000.

A train trip from Chicago to New York took about four days. A trip from New Orleans to Richmond could take two weeks and several train changes due to different track gauges. Also, about 91% of the US railroad equipment was held in the North. (It was little wonder that the South resorted to stealing locomotives in order to keep things going.)

The North’s population was 22,000,000. The South’s was 9,000,000. This allowed the Union to field armies of 100,000 without straining the population while the South had shortages almost from the start.

Despite the horrific causalities, the North could refill its ranks despite occasionally resorting to a draft. In the South, one soldier killed or wounded was a giant blow to an army.

The North had a seafaring tradition and held most of the yards needed to build up a navy. The South seized one yard and did not hold that very long.

All the sea faring expertise was in New England, not New Orleans. There were ports in the South, just not the dry docks needed to maintain ships.

The North was changing almost daily with the influx of immigrants. The South was in a kind of stasis with its agricultural, slaveholding system.

The North was looking forward, the South backward.

The North had ready reserves of gold and specie to finance the war. The South’s economy was tied up in cotton and slaves, with losing either causing a collapse.

This despite the introduction of “greenbacks” and a temporary income tax.

It seemed that the South was doomed from the start. Without a large population, resources, industrial might, and the ability to transport goods (without resorting to blockade runners), the South might have had a chance, perhaps if they were organized enough to press the attack after First Manassas.

No. Despite early success and some amazing innovations, the South was not destined to win.

Two Issues of the Civil War

2007-08-14T12:26:00.000-06:00

The Civil War was not a sudden occurrence. This event was a long way in coming, almost since the beginning of the USA. The process to Civil War might have begun even as the Declaration of Independence was being debated.

If one was to ask, “What caused the Civil War?” it would be like opening up a can of very angry worms. The causes were so various, according to which region one comes from, and so contentious that it stirs emotions even today. Even today, the number one cause, slavery, still makes headlines today:

Several African-American have been calling on the US Government to make reparation payments to the descendants of slaves.

Reenactments of slave auctions have been banned when some African-Americans were “traumatized” by the event.

There have been rallies by African-Americans to ban symbols such as the Confederate Flag, seen as a symbol of slavery, racism, and intolerance. There was a successful effort to have such a flag removed from the South Carolina State House when an economic boycott was threatened. This action even became an issue in the 2000 Presidential Election when candidate George W. Bush called that issue something for the people of South Carolina to decide. When the flag was finally taken down and relocated to a Confederate war memorial, it did not satisfy the protesters.

The issue of slavery, amongst others, was the hot button issues of the mid 19th Century, issued that divided a nation, not unlike today. This part deals with the issues that somehow forced a section of the US to actually break away.

Any opinions expressed here are those of the writer

Slavery:

This was the #1 issue out of all the issues that had to be dealt with. However, this was not totally a US problem. As a matter of fact, the African slave trade was in full motion even before there were plans to settle what would one day become the US East Coast. Since 1444 Portugal had been involved in kidnapping Africans and putting them to work, before the New World was discovered.

Spain soon took over and dominated the trade, bringing over Africans to work newly settled lands. Some were with the conquistadors in Mexico and accompanied explorers who discovered the Pacific Ocean. They were also put to work on plantations that produced food for the home markets.

The Dutch wrestled the trade rights from the Spanish and dominated it for fifty years. It is during this point that a certain English colony entered the picture.
August, 1619: A Dutch ship entered the small harbor at Jamestown, Virginia Colony and offloaded 20 Africans taken off a Spanish ship. These Africans were designated “indentured servants” and were put to work. This is when the American involvement began.

Crops such as rice and indigo were labor intensive, and there were not enough workers coming over from England so plantation owners jumped at the idea of importing workers. This became popular in the southern colonies, but this also became a money maker for New England merchants as well. As a result, England took over the slave trade in 1713 and that nation itself became a slave holding country.

What took place became known as the Triangle Trade. Ships would depart Boston with fish, grain, rum, and raw materials and sailed for the West African coast. There, they would trade their cargo for newly captured Africans. From Africa, the ships would sail for the West Indies. On arrival there, the Africans would be traded for sugar, molasses, “experienced” slaves, and their profits. That cargo would be taken to the Colonies, the “experienced” slaves would be sold to the auction houses, the sugar and molasses sold to merchants (usually turned into rum), and the profits went into the pockets of the businessmen backing the venture.

The trip from Africa to the West Indies was known as the “Middle Passage.” The newly caught Africans were dense packed into the holds of the slave ships, chained to the deck or to bunks, with the barest of sanitation, if that. Add to that meager food, and you had the ingredients for unimaginable horrors. Deaths from disease and suicide were common on these journeys. Those who were sick or who had died were thrown overboard for the sharks to eat. Even if one survived the trip, there was still being sold and put to work for the remainder of ones life.

As the Colonies strove to break away from England, there were paradoxes to the ideas that the colonists were fighting for:

George Washington, commander of the Continental Army and the future 1st President of the Unites States, had slaves at his Mount Vernon farm. They had belonged to his wife and they were freed upon his death.

Thomas Jefferson’s home, Monticello, was built with slave labor. He did have his reservations about the practice as he was writing “all men are created equal.”

Many of the Founding Fathers either had slaves, or were fighting to free them. Many Africans were in the ranks of Washington’s army, accepted there without any fuss. (Some say that it was because the British Royal Army planned to increase their ranks with freed slaves.)

From 1775 to 1776, the Continental Congress took on the issue while hammering together the Declaration of Independence. There were many precedents that were being considered:

There was a vocal anti-slavery group in the colonies. In 1688, there was the first anti-slavery demonstration at Germantown, Pennsylvania Colony. In 1700, the first anti-slavery pamphlet, The Selling of Joseph was published.

1754: John Woolman, a Quaker minister, published Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes, another anti-slavery pamphlet.

There were, on the other hand, trouble between Africans and Whites, resulting in a slave revolt in South Carolina in 1739 and riots in New York City in 1741, just to name a few.

In a draft of the Declaration of Independence, there was a charge leveled against England’s King George III about the slave trade and charged that the Crown prohibited the colonies from abolishing the practice. This was opposed by the southern colonies, already heavily involved in agriculture and needing the labor. Under pressure, that language was stricken out of the final draft. It is at this point (writers opinion) that the countdown to Fort Sumter began in Independence Hall.

All was not lost for the anti-slavery forces. Vermont actually abolished slavery in 1777, with Pennsylvania gradually ending the practice in 1780 and Massachusetts in 1783.

In 1787, as delegates were meeting in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention, the Northwest Ordinance had been already passed, allowing for new territories like Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to come into being. These territories, as new states, would be allowed to decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery.

When the US Constitution was written, slavery was still a contentious issue, but there was compromise as far as Africans were concerned:

US involvement in the slave trade was to end in 1808.

Slaves, as property, were taxable.

A slave, or Free African, was counted as 3/5 of a person for the purpose on representation in Congress.

As the 19th Century was entered, the states on the North were already considering abolition of slavery. This as the Industrial Revolution began in 1790, making slavery uneconomical, at least in the North. In the South, any general drift toward emancipation was quashed when Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, a machine that plucked seeds out of cotton boles, a very labor intensive activity. This resulted in cotton becoming a cash crop, in itself labor intensive and requiring more slaves.

In the South, it was felt necessary to keep control the slaves with both legal and physical methods:

A slave marriage was not considered legal, allowing families to be split up at auctions.

Teaching a slave to read and write was declared illegal, in many cases punishable by death.

Minor infractions, like not working hard enough, were punished by whipping.

Escape was highly discouraged, there were professional slave catchers who were backed up by bloodhounds. They were also backed by the Fugitive slave Act of 1793, which made escape a Federal offense and prohibited local authorities from assisting runaways. In one of the first cases of civil disobedience in US history, many Northerners ignored this law, in many cases helping escapes slaves to British North America (Canada).

But then, who would blame the slave for trying to escape, they lived in log cabins, wore the most basic (and cheapest) clothes, fed usually meager food (learning how to make do with what they had actually led to several types of cuisine that people enjoy today, but at the time it was not so hot), woke up and were in the fields at the crack of dawn and worked until after sundown (not the idyllic condition depicted in the movie Gone With the Wind), punished for the least infraction, could be sold at the Master’s whim, killed, and, basically condemned to a life of hard work.

There were slaves who were freed, a process called manumission, but there were restrictions on even that, a Freeman could not vote, hold public office, usually had poor jobs at little pay, and had to deal with the racial prejudices of neighbors, even in the North.

There was also the issue of political power as far as slavery was concerned. The South was leery of Northerners getting more power in Congress. Of course the North was wary of the opposite happening. There was a compromise that came out of the Northwest Ordinance, for one state that allowed slavery to enter the Union, that had to be followed by one state that did not allow the practice, and vice versa.

Example: 1803: Ohio entered the US as a Free State.
1812: Louisiana entered the US as a Slave State.

Now there were other methods being considered to tackle the question of slavery, in 1816, the American Colonization Society was formed with the aim of sending freed slaves to Africa. There was one problem with that, most of these persons were probably second and third generation African-Americans who probably never heard of Africa, but facts sometimes fail to trump good intentions. The first boat load of “colonists” landed on the coast of Africa. The colony was called Liberia and its capital was called Monrovia, after President James Monroe. This colony, which became a republic in 1847, was the only independent nation on the African continent at the time, the rest of Africa having been carved up into European possessions.

The first half of the 19th Century became very combative; groups were organizing in the North to press for a political solution, meaning abolition while the South tried to expand the practice westward, especially into new lands such as Texas. The Southern view was reinforced by revolts such as Denmark Vesey’s in 1822, or the Nat Turner revolt in 1831. The Northern view was reinforced by people like William Lloyd Garrison publishing the Liberator and the New England Anti-Slavery Society forming in Boston, MA.

There was much political discourse, but there was also much violence, as there were riots in places as diverse as Charleston, SC and Boston, where Garrison was abducted and led around the city with a noose around his neck. In New York, an anti-slavery rally was broken up by those who did not want to see Blacks and Whites mingling. In Georgia, it became a death penalty offence to advocate abolition, or in their minds, “inciting a slave insurrection.”

The political discourse were not much better, in 1837, Congress passed a Gag Rule, prohibiting and discussion, resolutions, or petitions mentioning slavery until 1844! The following year, it was lifted; the North pounced with an anti-slavery petition while the South presented a resolution calling for the disbanding of the United States. A stricter Gag Rule was then put into place. This prevented former President John Quincy Adams from offering 350 petitions calling for the abolishment of slavery. Adams would go on to represent a group of slaves who captured the Spanish slave ship Amistad. He would win the case and the would-be slaves were returned to Africa.

Even as the Congress, and the nation, was embroiled in the Mexican War, there was an attempt to limit the spread of slavery, David Wilmot, Representative from Pennsylvania, introduces a proviso to prohibit any land taken as a result of the war to allow slavery. Not only was that shot down, but Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina put forward the provision that Congress had no right to limit the spread of slavery.

In response to that was the idea of “popular sovereignty,” that is let the states themselves decide whether or not to have slavery. This would bypass Congress entirely, but would open up more troubles.

Congress did try to establish a balance on the issue with the Compromise of 1850, allowing California to enter the union as a Free State, establishing the New Mexico and Utah Territories, set the borders of Texas, strengthening the Fugitive Slave Act, and finally abolishing the slave trade (but not slavery) in the District of Columbia.

In several Southern states, it was resolved to hold the North to a very high standard concerning the Compromise of 1850, or else secession would be on the table.

The public was split concerning the whole slavery issue all together, with action coming in the form of the Underground Railroad, a system of safe houses that runaway slaves could go to in order to get food, medical attention, and protection on their journey north. This was done at great risk to those running the operation, prison under Federal law or death under State law. Harriet Tubman, a runaway slave herself, became to most famous of the “conductors.”

Another method of activism was the written word. There were several anti-slavery publications, but a series of stories began to appear in the National Era under the title, “Uncle Tom’s Cabin or Life Among the Lowly.” These stories, soon published as a novel, caused cheers in the North, where it became a best-seller, and a firestorm in the South, where it was banned. It’s author, Harriet Beecher Stowe, wife of abolitionist Henry Beecher, became both a celebrity and a villain overnight.

Then came Kansas.

There was the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which opened areas west of Missouri to settlement. Both pro and anti-slavery forces rush people to the area in order to influence a future on allowing slavery into the territory. These settlers were usually well armed and bringing more arms so that the other side could be intimidated.

In 1855, Kansas voted to allow slavery and expelled dissenting opinion from the new Kansas Legislature. Anti-slavery elements met in Lawrence and declared their own Legislature, setting the stage for armed conflict.
On the political front, a new party was emerging; the remains of the old Whig Party, plus smaller parties such as the Know-Nothings and the Wide-Awakes, joined together to become the Republican Party. They soon became the anti-slavery party.

In 1856 the Republicans attempted to win the White House with the explorer John Fremont, but lost to the Democrat Franklin Buchanan.

1857 saw a momentous decision from the US Supreme Court: Dred Scott vs. United States.

Dred Scott was a slave owned by a US Army officer, who took him to Minnesota during his career. After the officer died, his widow planned to sell Scott. He made an attempt to sue for his freedom, citing his recent residence in Minnesota, a Free State. The Court ruled that as a slave, he had no right to sue in Federal courts, neither was he (and by extension all African-Americans) afforded the fights of any citizen. Another ruling was that the Federal Government could not deprive citizens of their property rights, including slaves.

In the Mid-Term Election of 1858, a one-time Congressman and self-taught lawyer named Abraham Lincoln won the Republican nomination for the Illinois Senate seat held by Democrat Stephen Douglas. They both embark on a series of debates from 21 August to 15 October. Lincoln takes an anti-slavery position while Douglas pressed for popular sovereignty. Douglas wins the election.

A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free.
---Abraham Lincoln before the Illinois Republican Party convention, June 1858

Throughout the nation, the strains of the slavery issue were stretching to the breaking point. There were conventions calling for secession, court cases either upholding current laws, or calling then unconstitutional, depending on what side one was on.

Then came Harper's Ferry.

October, 1859: Abolitionist John Brown led a group of Blacks and Whites and seized the Federal Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, VA. The plan was to seize the arms and give them to slaves in order to ferment a revolt. They ended up blockaded in the main building and were overcome by a force of US Marines led by Colonel Robert E. Lee and Lieutenant J.E.B. Stuart. Brown was tried for treason by the State of Virginia and sentenced to be hanged. On 2 December, as he was led to the gallows, he declared that only blood could wash the stain of slavery away.

1860: the Presidential Election was in full swing, the Republicans, after several ballots, nominated Abraham Lincoln. The Democrats, however, were another matter; their party was split along regional lines, with the Northern faction selecting Stephen Douglas, and the Southern faction selecting John Breckenridge, Buchanan’s Vice-President. As the campaign progressed, several Southern states declared that if Lincoln was elected, Articles of Secession would be considered.

6 November, 1860: Abraham Lincoln is elected President.
20 December, 1860: South Carolina voted to secede.

The nation was now running down the road to war.

Slavery would die, first by the Union victory, then by the 13th Amendment, outlawing the practice. Everything beyond that would take further.

States’ Rights

The second most mentioned issue was States’ Rights. The premise here was that a state can better decide what to do within their borders than the Federal Government. Prior to the Civil War, a US citizen though of themselves as of their state first, then of the nation. For example; Robert E. Lee was a Colonel in the US Army at the beginning of 1861. When he was offered command of the entire Union war effort, he had to decide between the nation and his state. When Virginia seceded, Lee felt he had no choice but to resign his commission and go with his state. He was expressing a common attitude at the time.

It was the same as far as the relationship between the State and Federal Governments were concerned. The USA started out with the Articles of Confederation, creating a weak central government and strong state governments. This created problems in matters such as defense and taxation. Finally, the Constitution was written, granting exact powers to a central, or Federal, government, such as, defense, taxation, interstate commerce, and relations with other countries. The 10th Amendment spelled out that any powers not granted to the Federal Government were reserved to the States.
Herein was the conflict. When Congress passed a law, usually the states went along with it. Sometimes, the states were not happy when the Federal Government did something that they did not agree with.

For example:

December 1814 to January 1815: A convention of New England Federalists met at Hartford, CT to consider secession over the War of 1812. Nothing came out of this meeting.

19 May, 1828: Congress passed a tariff on imported goods from Europe, making those imports more expensive then US made goods. This “Tariff of Abominations” was greeted with anger in the agricultural South, who needed such imports. John C. Calhoun, at the time Vice-President in the Andrew Jackson Administration, wrote an article blasting the tariff as unconstitutional and called on his home state, South Carolina, to nullify, or refuse to enforce, the tariff. Calhoun ended up resigning the Vice-Presidency in 1832 over the issue and would be at odds with President Jackson.

January 1830: Senator Daniel Webster asserted in a series of debates that the states derived their power from the Constitution and that the Federal Government was the final authority. That did not sit well with most Southerners.

24 November, 1832: Congress passed another Tariff Act. South Carolina responded by issuing an Ordinance of Nullification against it. President Jackson threatened to order 50,000 troops to Charleston in order to enforce the law. The Governor of South Carolina called for 10,000 militia to repel what was being called a “Federal invasion.” Calhoun, at this point a Senator, met with Senator Henry Clay and the two hammered out an agreement which managed to avoid a civil war. The following year, the Compromise Tariff of 1833 was passed, which reduces tariffs, and South Carolina followed suit and repealed their nullification ordinance.

In the North, many citizens, and some politicians, had a beef with the Fugitive Slave Law, which gave the Federal Government power to assist in catching runaway slaves. Many citizens organized to impede those efforts, hiding runaways and blocking slavecatchers and bailiffs from carrying out their duties, at risk of jail time themselves.

I will not obey it, by God!
---Ralph Waldo Emerson on the Fugitive Slave Act.

In the South, many people saw the conflict over slavery as a Federal intrusion into their lives. Many politicians believed that it was State business to decided id slavery was to exist (pity they did not want Missouri and Kansas to have that choice), not the Federal Government. During the 1850s, as the Republican Party was on the ascendant (and adopting an anti-slavery platform), people in the South believed that they would be forced to give up their slaves at the point of a bayonet. Almost all of the Deep South states resolved to secede if a Republican was elected President, which did happen in 1860.

As the South began to secede, President Franklin Buchanan felt that even though the states could not leave the Union, the Constitution did not address what the Federal Government could do about it. He was right, the addition of new states was provided for (there were 36 states at the time) but nothing on what it a state wanted to express their rights and leave.

Because of a perceived violation of their “rights,” the Southern States began to break
away.

Supreme Court Justices who were Civil War Veterans

2007-08-07T09:56:00.000-06:00

Union:

Oliver Wendell Holmes—Captain in a Massachusetts Regiment. (Holmes is known for two things, yelling at President Lincoln to get down, and for the majority opinion in Schenck vs. US in which is was declared that the First Amendment was not absolute, especially in wartime.)

John M. Harlan—Colonel in a Kentucky Regiment

William B. Woods—Lieutenant Colonel, 76th Ohio. Left service as a Brevet Major General.

Stanley Matthews—Lieutenant Colonel, 23rd Ohio

Confederate:

Edward D. White—Possibly a Lieutenant in a Louisiana Regiment, but details are sketchy. (He was the 9th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.)

Horace H. Lurton—Sergeant-Major, 5th Tennessee, 2nd Kentucky, and 3rd Kentucky Cavalry.

Lucius Q. C. Lamar—Colonel, 19th Mississippi. (Before his Supreme Court appointment, he was Secretary of the Interior.)

Some obscure things....

2007-08-06T12:46:00.000-06:00

Tucson, New Mexico (soon to be Arizona) Territory, was briefly occupied by the Arizona Rangers (CSA) under John R. Baylor. They pulled out when a strong Union force under James H. Carleton came out of California. Carleton became the first governor of the newly created Arizona Territory.

There was a 1st California Regiment at the Battle of Ball’s Bluff, VA.

Colorado Territory formed four infantry regiments and one brigade of light artillery. Their only Civil War engagement was at Glorieta Pass.

Dakota Territory (present-day North and South Dakota) formed two cavalry companies but neither saw action in the war. They were created to replace Regular Cavalry who were brought East. The mission in the area was to guard against raids by Lakota tribes.

Delaware was a Slave state. It took the 13th Amendment to the Constitution to abolish the practice there.

Washington, D.C. was the most heavily fortified city in the world at the time.

In what would be the State of Oklahoma, there was a civil war within a civil war as the Five Civilized Tribes (Choctaw, Creek Cherokee, Seminole, and Chickasaw) split over their tribal leaders pledge to join the Confederacy. Some of these tribes actually owned slaves. The Cherokees switched loyalties and freed their slaves in 1864.

There was a 1st Nebraska Regiment at the Battle of Shiloh.

A Confederate flag flew briefly over Virginia City, Nevada. The silver out of the Comstock Lode, however, went into the Federal Treasury. As in Dakota Territory, Nevada formed units to replace Regular troops who were pulled to serve in the East.
Nevada became a state on 31 October, 1864.

The New England states were actually the first region to at least talk about secession. They were responding to the War of 1812, which they were against.

Oregon created ten cavalry companies of cavalry, but was only used in the state, and even that was supported by California troops.

Utah Territory’s involvement was limited to protecting the Overland Mail route and telegraph lines.

Washington Territory had to worry more about Shoshoni raids than any possible Confederate incursion.

The nation westward mail was served by the Pony Express from 1860 to 1861.

One of the largest news agencies that would report on the Civil War, the Associated Press, had already been in existence since 1848.

One of the two greatest naval battles of the Civil War did not take place in US waters, but in the English Channel. (USS Kearsarge vs. CSS Alabama)

Jefferson Davis emptied his own pockets in order to quell the Richmond Bread Riots. He was backed up by militia who were also aiming muskets at the crowd.

One of the greatest stories of the Civil War, The Red Badge of Courage, was written by Stephen Crane, who was born after the war.

The Gettysburg Address was written on an envelope during the train ride to Gettysburg.

The nation’s tax system had its genesis in the Internal Revenue Act of 1864. The income tax died after the war, but was revived thanks to the 16th Amendment in 1913. On top of a 3% tax on income, there were taxes on liquor, cigars, pipe tobacco, jewelry, licenses, and even inheritances.

“In God we Trust” was stamped on coins starting in late 1864.

At Irwinville, GA on 10 May, 1865, a party of Federal cavalry entered the camp of former CS President Jefferson Davis. As he was urged to escape by his wife, Varina, a shawl was thrown over him. This led to cartoons as well as a display at P.T. Barnum’s Showhouse depicting him in a dress.

Excerpts from the Articles of War

2007-07-31T13:00:00.002-06:00

The Articles of War were to be applied to every member of the US Armed Forces, Officer and Enlisted.

Military personnel were encouraged to attend a “divine service.” If an enlisted man misbehaved at church, the penalty was forfeiture of 1/6 of a dollar for the first offence. Additional offensives were penalized by forfeiture of 1/6 of a dollar plus 24 hours confinement. Officers were penalized one dollar for such offensives.

For the offense of “contemptuous or disrespectful words” against the President, Vice-President, Congressmembers, or State officials, the officer was stripped of his commission and made to leave the service. Enlisted soldiers were court-martial.

For disrespect to a superior officer, both officers and enlisted were court-martialed.

For mutiny and sedition, the prescribed punishment was death.

For witnessing mutiny and sedition, and failing to attempt to stop it by either reporting it or suppressing it, the prescribed punishment was death.

For striking a superior officer, and/or disobeying a direct order from same, the offender could receive any penalty up to death.

All enlisted personnel had to have the Articles of War read to him within six days of enlistment.

No one was to be released from the Army without a written discharge in his possession.

The Regimental commander had the authority to issue furloughs as needed. Such furloughs were limited to 20 days within a six month period.

False furlough certificates were punished via a court-martial.

The penalty for a mustering officer receiving money for mustering troops was dismissal from the service and disqualification from holding any Federal office. The same penalty applied for making up muster rolls without having the actual bodies.

The Regimental commander had to provide a report of manning levels at the end of every month.

The penalty for desertion was death, or other prescribed punishment. The same punishment was prescribed for anyone who tried to get others to desert.

The penalty for dueling was dismissal for officers, court-martial for enlisted.

Sutlers were prohibited from selling from 9:00 p.m. to Reveille, as well as Sundays during services. They were also held responsible for the quality of their goods. Failure to do so resulted in banishment from the camp.

Officers were required to resolve all problems within the unit. It reflected badly on an officer if higher ups had to deal with it.

Supply personnel who either sold, lost, or allowed damage to the supplies they were responsible for were required to pay back the cost of the involved items. Officers were dismissed while enlisted were court-martialed.

Any soldier who either sold, lost, or allowed damage to the equipment he was issued had ½ of his pay docked until the value of the equipment was realized, as well as confinement.

Officers found drunk on duty were court-martialed.

Soldiers found asleep on duty were sentenced to death.

Soldiers who “misbehaved before the enemy” were sentenced up to and including death.

Revealing the sign/countersign to unauthorized personnel could result in death.

Helping enemy personnel evade capture could have resulted in death. (Kind of tough on families with sons on both sides.)

Army Engineers were not authorized to perform duties outside their specialty without approval.

If a soldier died while on duty, the Commanding Officer, with two other officers, had to gather the effects of the deceased, arrange for their transport home, and any pay sent to the deceased member’s family.

The proscribed sentence for spying was death.

Court-martial:

The board for a General court-martial consisted of five to thirteen officers.

Courts-martial were authorized as low as the Regimental level. The board convened had to consist of at least three officers. If the unit was short of officers, other units could be asked to provide such.

For capital cases, or cases involving officers, the lowest level that could hold the court-martial was at Brigade level.

The Judge Advocate was the prosecutor in the case.

If the defendant remained silent, the court was to go on as he had pled not guilty.

The court had to conduct themselves with decorum. The same court had the power to administer penalties for abusive behavior within the court.
All who gave testimony had to swear to the truth before the court.

Testimonies in non-capital cases were allowed to be sworn before a Justice-of-the-Peace.

Officers could not be tried by those of inferior rank if possible.

Officers charged were confined to barracks, quarters, or tent and made to surrender his sword. Enlisted were confined to the guardhouse. Neither could be held longer than eight days.

If an officer was convicted of cowardice or fraud, information about the incident, charge, and punishment was to be published in the newspapers of the offender’s home state.

It required a vote of 2/3 of the board to issue a sentence of death or 50 lashes.

The court did have the authority to pardon or lessen a sentence.

Non-Commissioned Officers

2007-07-31T13:00:00.001-06:00

All Non-Commissioned Officers are chosen by the Colonel, usually with the recommendations of the other Officers.

The 1st Sergeant will conduct the morning roll call. Action to be taken included, noting who is absent, who is sick, assign specific duty, and issue rations and clothing (if needed). Any sick personnel would be sent to the Surgeon. A report of the roll call would be composed for the Colonel.

The NCO had some privileges:

They were not confined with privates in the Guardhouse.

They were not to be used for menial service, or as waiters in an officer’s mess.

They could not be reduced in rank except by a court-martial.

They received a certificate of their rank from the Colonel.

They were not transferred to another regiment except with the approval of the Commanding General.

They were allowed to re-enlist during a window of two months prior to one month after the expiration of service.

The NCO had specific duties:

They assisted the officers in maintaining discipline.

If assigned as Officer of the Guard, they could not leave their post unless visiting sentinel positions, and then only after notifying the duty corporal.

They were not allowed to remove any part of their clothing or equipment while on guard duty.

They ensured the sign/countersign is communicated to the other sentinels.

They were not allowed to use foul language. For the first instance, 1/6 of a dollar was taken out of the next paycheck. On the second, 1/6 of a dollar was forfeited and 24 hours spent in the guardhouse.

They were required to suppress any attempts of mutiny and sedition. Failing to do so would put the NCO on trial.

They had the authority to enforce discipline, even if soldiers from other regiments were involved.

The NCO must be sober, clean, and have strict attention to detail while performing their duties.

Corporals must comport themselves in the same manner as the Sergeants.

Firing

2007-07-31T12:59:00.000-06:00

1. Volley: the entire formation fires their muskets on the command “Fire.” In some cases, the front rank would be kneeling.

2. At Will: after a volley or two, the area in front would be shrouded in smoke. At this point, it is a good idea to have the troops keep firing as they load.

3. Cease Fire: all troops in the formation will stop firing and place their muskets in the carry position.

4. Firing at the oblique: this is done at the right or left angle of the front of the formation.

5. Fire by File: the right file fires their muskets. As they began reloading, the file next to them fires, and so on, causing a ripple of fire.

6. Fire by Rank: the first rank fires their muskets. As they began reloading, the second rank fires.

Marching

2007-07-31T12:58:00.000-06:00

. Mark Time: Marching in place.

2. March: Step off with the left foot. Each step to be 28 inches.

3. Change Step: Bring feet together, and then resume marching with the foot opposite to the one in step at the time of the command.

4. Squad Backwards: The formation moves backwards while facing forward. This is usually used in a fighting retreat.

5. Double Quick: Formation is running. Good for getting your troops there quickly.

Manual of Arms

2007-07-31T12:56:00.000-06:00

1. Carrying the musket: Right side of body, barrel pointed up, rammer to the front, barrel resting on the shoulder, right hand gripping the stock below the trigger guard.

2. Support arms: Move the musket from the right to the left, then support the weapon by wrapping the left arm around, allowing the forearm to support the musket at the hammer. The right arm is straight down.

3. Attention: Heels together, feet at an angle, legs straight but do not lock the knees (you will faint), body straight, head straight, eyes front, arms are straight down (if not carrying a musket), hands curled as if holding a roll of specie.

4. Present Arms: Musket is brought in front of the body, held with both hands. This is used as a salute.

5. Order Arms: musket is brought back to the carry position.

6. Shoulder Shift Arms: Musket is brought to where the hammer is at shoulder level and facing out. The weapon is at an angle. The arm is across the stock in order to support the musket.

7. Fix Bayonets: Musket is grounded with the barrel pointed up, supported by the right hand. The left hand grips the bayonet and pulls it out of the scabbard. The bayonet is then turned so that the point is straight up. The bayonet is then threaded over the front sight and the locking ring is turned to the right, locking the bayonet in place. The musket is then returned to the carry position.

8. Charge Bayonet: From the carry position, the left hand grips the barrel between the 1st and 2nd bands. The right hand is still at the stock. The musket is then rotated to about a 45 degree angle, usually accompanied with a shout.

9. Unfix Bayonet: The reverse of #7.

10. Ground: Musket is placed on the ground with the hammer up.

Regimental Formation According to Hardee’s Tactics

2007-07-31T12:55:00.000-06:00

1 Regiment = 10 Companies

Formation was arranged in the following company order; 1st, 6th, 4th, 9th, 3rd, 8th, 5th, 10th, 7th, and 2nd.

The highest ranking Captain (First Captain) was positioned on the right. The Second Captain would be positioned on the left. The next in line would be positioned at right of center, and so on.

Once the formation was assembled, the companies were designated, from right to left, first through tenth, for the purposes of control during maneuver.

The two companies on the right were called the 1st Division. The next two were called the 2nd Division, and so on, up to five divisions.

Each company was divided into two platoons. Each platoon was divided into two sections.

If a part of a regiment was maneuvering, at least two companies, that formation was called a battalion.

The color guard was positioned to the left of the right center company. Everything to the right of the colors was called the right wing, and everything to the left was called the left wing.

The formation, while in battle, was of two ranks, with the corporals placed on the right and left of each platoon according to height.

There was a space of thirteen inches from the back (or knapsack) to the chest of the next man in line.

Transfers of soldiers from stronger to weaker companies were authorized.

Placement of officers and sergeants in the company:

Captain on the right of the company.
1st Sergeant in the second rank behind the Captain. This is the right guide.

All remaining company officers and sergeants were posted as file closers, ensuring that no one fell out of the formation.

1st Lieutenant at the rear of the 4th Section.
2ne lieutenant at the rear of the 1st Platoon.
3rd lieutenant at the rear of the 2nd Platoon.
2nd Sergeant behind the second file to the left of center of the company.
3rd Sergeant behind the second file to the right of center of the company.
4th Sergeant behind the second file to the left of 1st Platoon.
5th Sergeant behind the second file to the right of 1st Platoon.

At the company at the left flank of the regimental formation, the 2nd Sergeant was placed in the front rank.

In the regimental formation, the Colonel, on horseback, was placed thirty paces behind the center of the formation. The Lieutenant Colonel was on horseback and assigned to the right wing, while the Major controlled the left wing, also on a horse.

The Adjutant was on foot and assigned on the right, while the Sergeant Major was also on foot and assigned to the left, both eight paces behind the file closers. They were in a position to assist the Lieutenant Colonel and Major during maneuvering.

If the field officers are not there, the Senior Captain would take charge,

Behind the formation were the Quartermaster, Surgeon, and any other staff officers.

The musicians (bugles, drums, any regimental bands) were placed to the rear of the closers.

Color guard:

This consisted of eight corporals and one sergeant. The sergeant was the color bearer and the corporals were formed around him. Their job was to protect the National and Regimental flags from falling into enemy hands. As such, the color bearer was the one the enemy aimed at the most. Some regiments went through several color bearers before the battle was over.

The Irish in the Civil War

2007-07-30T14:00:00.000-06:00

Of the myriad nationalities that immigrated to the United States prior to the Civil War, the Irish were figured at the most prominent. The 1860 Census had counted 1,611,304 Irish-born immigrants living in the US, mostly in the Northeast, but many also moved inland, even into the South and West.

There was already a tradition of Irish in various armed forces around the world, such as Napoleon’s Grande Armee, several South American revolutionary armies, and even on both sides of the Mexican. It seemed that it was the only way the Irish were able to get any respect beyond the menial jobs that they were able to get. Of course, they were already facing anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic discrimination on top of their image as fighting drunkards who were not smart enough to do anything better.

There were already a good number if Irish soldiers in the Regular Army when the Civil War broke out. There were also many Irish who were in militia units around the country who formed the nucleus of many regiments, both Union and Confederate.

As the guns at Fort Sumter fell silent, US President Lincoln issued a call for 75,000 volunteers to put down the rebellion in the South. As a result, thousands of Irish were flocking to the colors;

The 9th Connecticut Infantry was all Irish.

The 15th Maine was mostly made up of Irish.

Of the 62 regiments that Massachusetts formed, only two were predominately Irish, the 9th and 28th. The rest had some Irish in their ranks.

New Hampshire had one Irish regiment, the 10th, as well as one company of the 19th.

New York had the most Irish in service, with the 11th (1st Fire Zouaves) and the 20th State Militia full of Irish at the start. Following Irish regiments included the 37th (Irish Rifles), 63rd, 69th, 88th, 105th, 154th, 164th, 170th, 175th, and the 182nd New York.

Pennsylvania produced the 24th, 69th, and 116th Infantry Regiments out of its Irish population.

Vermont only had one company of the 13th made up of Irishmen.

Illinois had the 23rd Infantry, which was pared with a cavalry unit and a Wisconsin artillery battery, also made up of Irish.

Wisconsin also had the 11th and 17th Infantry with Irish in them.

Ohio’s Irish were represented in the 10th Infantry.
Indiana had the 35th and 61st with Irish in them.

And finally, the 27th Michigan has a lot of Irish immigrants in it.

These were just a slice of the Irish in the Union Army.

Many of the immigrants were met by recruitment officers as they were getting off the boat from Ireland. Others were recruited from the factories, wharves and farms throughout the North.

Many Irish nationalists had also enlisted in, or formed regiments for Federal service in the hopes that they would receive valuable combat experience in the case of an attempt to free Ireland from British control.

One such was Thomas Meagher, born on 3 August, 1823 in Waterford, Ireland. He was involved in Irish revolutionary activities which included the Rebellion of 1848. He was arrested and sentenced to death. That sentence was commuted to life at a penal colony in Tasmania. He escaped from there and made his way to California, and then to New York, where he became a US Citizen and a member of the Irish community there.

As the war started, he raised a company of the 69th New York and got his first taste of battle at First Bull Run (Manassas, VA). He was soon slated for leadership when his commander was captured there. During the winter of 1861-61, Meagher assembled the Irish Brigade, consisting of his 69th New York along with the 63rd and 88th New York, the 28th Massachusetts, and the 116th Pennsylvania.

Their battle honors were legendary:

At Seven Pines (1 June, 1862) the brigade smashed the flank on a Confederate advance near the Adams House, near the Chickahominy River.

At Gaines’ Mill (26 June, 1862) Meagher’s troops stop another Confederate assault, allowing the baggage trains to get away.

The brigade captured a Confederate battery near Meadow Station.

At Malvern Hill (1 July, 1862) the brigade supported Berdan’s Sharpshooters, who were acting as skirmishers.

At Antietam (Sharpsburg, MD, 17 September, 1862) the brigade was part of the assault on a Confederate line at a sunken road which became known as “Bloody Lane.”

At Fredericksburg (13 December, 1862) the Irish Brigade were sent up Marye’s Heights in the face of horrific cannon and musket fire.

At Chancellorsville (2 May, 1863) they rescued the guns of the 5th Maine Artillery when the gun crews were killed.

At this point, the brigade had dropped to under 500 men, about half a regiment. Meagher had asked to take his brigade home and recruit more regiments, which was refused. In response, Meagher resigned his commission on 8 May, 1863.

Colonel Patrick Kelly, from Kerry, Ireland, became the new commander of a brigade of 400.

At Gettysburg (Day Two, 2 July, 1863) the Irish Brigade was part of an attack on The Wheatfield, which resulted in the brigade’s further decimation, almost half of their remaining number.

The Irish Brigade was listed as “combat ineffective,” meaning that there were not enough troops to even maintain a defensive line. Even as such, they did take part in the Mine Run Campaign in late 1863.

In January, 1864, the remains of the Irish Brigade re-enlisted almost to a man and were sent home to recruit new members. St. Patrick’s Day, 1864, saw the reorganized brigade back in the field, in time for the Overland Campaign. They were now commanded by Colonel Thomas Smyth.

The new Irish Brigade first distinguished themselves at the Wilderness (6 May, 1864) during the savage fighting along the Brock Road.

At Spotsylvania, they were part of the assault on the Mule Shoe. After that battle, Colonel Richard Byrnes was given command of the brigade.

At Cold Harbor, as the Union assault was getting shredded, the Irish managed to penetrate a portion of the Confederate line. Byrnes was mortally wounded and Colonel Kelly took over command.

Kelly himself was killed on 16 June, 1864 during the assault on the Confederate lines at Petersburg.

The brigade itself was once again decimated to the point that the Irish Brigade was disbanded and incorporated with other brigades. However, that was not the end.

On 2 November, 1864, the Irish Brigade (Reorganized) was assembled under the command of Colonel Robert Nugent, one of the few surviving officers of the original Irish Brigade. That brigade would take part in the Siege of Petersburg as well as the Appomattox Campaign.

Smyth, at that point a Brigadier General, became the last general officer killed in the Civil War, occurring just before the Confederate surrender.
Colonel Nugent was the one who carried the first letter to Confederate General Robert E. Lee suggesting surrender.

The Irish Brigade marched in the Grand Review before heading home and finally disbanding on 30 June, 1865.

Meagher was brought back into Union service, serving in Major General William Sherman’s command. After again resigning his commission, he was appointed the territorial secretary of Montana Territory and served as Acting Governor. He died on 1 July, 1867 after falling off a riverboat on the Missouri River, supposedly drunk. The body was never found.

The other great Irish commander in Union service was Michael Corcoran. He was born on 21 September, 1827 in Carrowkeel, County Donegal and had trained to be a policeman. While a part of the Irish Constabulary, he joined a revolutionary organization called the Ribbonmen. Fleeing charges of treason, he went to New York, where he worked first in a tavern, then as a school inspector and finally in the post office. He also became part of the 69th New York Militia, enlisting as a private and soon becoming its colonel. When the Civil War broke out, the 69th New York Militia became the 69th New York Infantry. They were first sent to Washington, then onward to the brigade of William Sherman. At First Bull Run, Corcoran was wounded and captured, becoming a national hero for refusing to be exchanged for a Confederate prisoner.

Corcoran was eventually exchanged on 14 August, 1862, but his old command was headed by Meagher. Corcoran decided to raise a brigade of his own. This resulted in the 155th, 164th, 170th, and the 184th New York becoming Corcoran’s Legion. The Legion was assigned in the Suffolk, VA area and participated in the Suffolk Campaign of 1863 before being assigned to the Washington Defenses.

Corcoran was not able to do to much more; he was killed in 22 December, 1863 in an accident involving his horse.

There other Irishman of note in Federal service:

Major St. Clair Mulholland commanded the 116th Pennsylvania while holding a rear-guard action at Chancellorsville, earning a Medal of Honor for that action.

Father William Corby was the chaplain of the 88th New York, having come from a small Catholic boarding school that would become Notre Dame University. At Antietam, he rode up and down the Irish Brigade’s line of battle, granting solution to those who die bravely in battle. The brigade was headed for Bloody Lane. At Gettysburg, he granted mass absolution to those who would be headed for the Wheatfield. A passing general was moved by the event, none other that II Corps commander Winfield Scott Hancock.

Major James Quinlan received the Medal of Honor for his actions at Savage Station, VA.

1st Lieutenant George W. Ford captured a Confederate flag at Saylor’s Creek (6 April, 1865), earning a Medal of Honor.

1st Lieutenant Louis Sacriste led the effort to save one of the 5th Maine Artillery’s cannon at Chancellorsville, earning his Medal of Honor.

Private Timothy Donoghue carried a wounded officer, while wounded himself, off Marye’s Heights, earning a Medal of Honor.

In all, 76 Irish-born soldiers won the Medal of Honor, of which six were in the Irish Brigade. This out of the 1196 awarded.

While Irish soldiers were making a name for themselves in the Union Army, there were others in whom fate sent them to Charleston, SC, rather than New York.

Confederate Irish units included:

1st Virginia Infantry Battalion (Provisional). This unit fought at Blackburn’s Ford, prior to First Manassas.

The 27th Virginia Infantry.

The 7th Alabama Infantry.

Company H of the 8th Alabama.

Companies I and F of the 6th Louisiana.

Companies A, D, and E of the 1st Georgia

A company of the 8th Georgia.

The 24th Georgia, which was involved at the Stone Wall on top of Marye’s Heights as the Union Irish Brigade approached.

Company F of the 7th Louisiana.

Company C of the 1st South Carolina Infantry Battalion

Company C of the 19th Battalion Virginia Artillery.

2nd, 10th, and 21st Tennessee.

154th Senior Tennessee Infantry

Company B of the 3rd Confederate Battalion, Engineer Corps.

Both Tennessee and Louisiana had the most Irish-born in Confederate service.

Commanders included:

Patrick Cleburne was born on 16 March, 1828 at Ovens, County Cork. He joined the British Army after failing medical school, serving for over three years when he bought his discharge and moved to Arkansas, becoming a druggist and then a lawyer. When the Civil War broke out, he sided with his fellow Arkansans and joined the Yell Rifles as a private. His military experience was noted as he was soon a Captain. He participated in the fighting at Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing, TN), Perryville, and Murfreesboro where he was promoted to Major General. He then fought at Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, and Ringgold Gap. He almost trashed his military career by suggesting that slaves could be armed in support of the Confederacy. He would not rise above division commander for that. Still, he still served throughout the defense of Atlanta and on with the Army of Tennessee’s advance into Tennessee. He was killed during the Battle of Franklin, 30 November, 1864, one of seven generals to fall.

Joseph Finegan was born on 17 November, 1814 at Clones, County Monaghan. Seeking his fortune, he immigrated to Florida in 1835 where he started a family and a lumber business at St. Augustine. At the time Florida seceded, Finegan was in the Legislature and had voted to leave the Union. He was soon made state director of military affairs. He was instrumental in forming regiments for Confederate service as well as state defense.
On 8 April, 1862, he was in Confederate service himself as a Brigadier General. His battle experiences included, St. John’s Bluff, Olustree, Cold Harbor, Globe Tavern, the siege lines of Petersburg, and finally Hatcher’s run before transferring back to Florida before the Confederate surrender. His last act as a Confederate general was to help Secretary of War John C. Breckenridge escape to Cuba. Finegan served in the Florida Senate before dying on 29 October, 1885.

The Civil War ended up cementing the Irish into the American experience, establishing respect for them at places such as Shiloh and Fredericksburg. After the war, their energies were used for more peaceful purposes as the Transcontinental Railroad was built.

146 years ago today.

2007-07-21T12:05:00.000-06:00

Date: July 21, 1861

Commanders:Union: Brigadier General Irwin McDowell

Confederate: Brigadier General P.T.G. Beauregard (Later General Joseph Johnston)

Prelude: for the past few months both sides have been training and preparing for what seemed to be a colossal showdown. In the South, the new Confederate Army was drilling at various places, expecting to go to the field, scare off the Yankee invader, and secure independence for the new Confederate States of America. This was evident in Virginia, where President Abraham Lincoln’s call for volunteers to put down the rebellion spurred that state to vote for secession. The response to the President’s request for Virginia to furnish three regiments for Federal service was that three regiments were formed, but for the Armed Forces of Virginia. Within weeks, those troops, and others, were re-mustered into Confederate service and their commander, former US Army Colonel Robert E. Lee, becoming an advisor to Confederate President Jefferson Davis.

In the North, many were taking offense to the firing on the US flag at Fort Sumter and were flocking to recruiting stations to enlist in regiments being raised by the State governments for Federal service. Many of these were 90-day enlistees, the feeling being that this war would end after one battle. Most of these had no idea what military service and discipline was like. It was not as if the Federal government had much of a choice. The Regular Army only had 16,000, many of those scattered at outposts on the frontier. There was no way the professionals could hold off the tens of thousands now flocking to the Stars and Bars now flying over Southern cities.As June began, there was pressure being put on McDowell to start an offensive. The politicians were calling for a grand offensive to crush the rebellion. However, there was a bigger problem, those who enlisted for 90 days were nearing the end of their terms and they were intending to leave at the 90th day. Under this pressure, McDowell did come up with a plan. He would lead a force to seize the rail junction at Manassas, VA while another force under Brigadier General Robert Patterson was sent into the Shenandoah Valley to face Confederate troops under Joe Johnston. When McDowell expressed his concerns about the greenness of his troops, he was told that the enemy was also green.

July 16, 1861: McDowell’s army begins marching from their camps into northern Virginia. Confederate spies in Washington quickly get word to Beauregard, who orders his pickets to fall back.

July 17, 1861: Beauregard requests reinforcements from Johnston.

July 18, 1861: Johnston keeps a cavalry screen to fool Patterson into remaining where he was, while Johnston moves his army towards Manassas by rail.McDowell was having problems with discipline as many of his troops break ranks to pick blackberries and play around. The progress of the Union forces is very slow. He finally reaches Centerville. An attempt to move towards the Confederate right flank is stopped at Blackburn’s Ford. McDowell decides to scout out the enemy positions in front of him.

July 20, 1861: Despite receiving word that Beauregard was being reinforced, McDowell issues orders to launch an attack in the morning. It was believed that Patterson was holding Johnston at bay, but the truth was that Johnston’s troops were on trains heading for Manassas Junction, a short march away.

July 21, 1861: Morning; McDowell sent his troops down the Warrenton Turnpike towards a creek called Bull Run. South of Centerville, the force split, with one group continuing down the road while the second group went west and looped around to seize the Sudley Ford crossing over Bull Run. The first group, under Brigadier General Daniel Tyler reached the Stone Bridge about 5:00 a.m. One of the brigades is commanded by Colonel William Sherman.

9:00 a.m. The second group, under Brigadier Generals David Hunter and Samuel Heintzelman crosses Bull Run at Sudley Ford and attempts to hit the Confederate left. Beauregard was planning to launch an attack on the force at the Stone Bridge, but this new threat forces him to shift troops from Colonel Nathan Evans brigade to the west to support the brigades of Brigadier Generals Bernard Bee and Francis Bartow as they were holding off the Federal thrust.

10:00 a.m. At Matthews Hill, the Federal attack was pushing Bee’s and Bartow’s troops back. At the same time, Tyler’s troops make it across the Stone Bridge and pushed south.

2:00 p.m. All of the Confederate forces begin to concentrate on Henry House Hill.At the same time, Johnston’s troops were arriving at Manassas Junction and were marching toward the battle. The first brigade from Johnston’s army, led by Virginia Military Institute professor and now Brigadier General Thomas Jackson arrives to find Bee and Bartow, and Evans pulling back.

Bee meets Jackson:
Bee: General, they are pushing us back.
Jackson: Well, sir, we shall give them the bayonet.

Bee rides back to his troops and shouts, “Look, there is Jackson standing like a stone wall. Let up endeavor to die here and we will conquer. Rally behind the Virginians!”It is not know whether that was a compliment, meaning that Jackson was bravely facing the storm of shot and shell that was coming in, or an insult, meaning that Jackson was slow bringing his troops into battle. Fifteen minutes after he said those words, Bee was killed by a Federal volley. The main result was that Jackson became known as “Stonewall” and the brigade was named the “Stonewall Brigade.” (Jackson never liked to be called “Stonewall,” he felt that the brigade deserved the nickname more than he did.)

Between one and four p.m. there was a series of back and forth attacks with neither gaining the advantage until Johnston’s army was fully into line of battle. The Confederates were ready for a full charge. Beauregard orders the charge.

4:00 p.m. Jackson was rallying his men when a bullet smashes into his left hand. That gets him mad. He yells, “When you charge, yell like furies.” (This is believed to be the origin of the “Rebel Yell.”)Beauregard orders the charge. As the Confederates moved forward, the disorganized Union line began to crumble. Some units tried to hold off the charge, but a cavalry charge led by Colonel J.E.B. Stuart broke the Federal line and McDowell’s troops began to fall back.As the Union forces were falling back, some in fine order and others in a rout, they ran into an incredible sight. Several hundred politicians and society persons had come out from Washington to watch the battle with picnic baskets and champagne to toast the Union victory. Now they were astride the only route that the Union troops could take to get away.As the soldiers and civilians were crossing the Stone Bridge, a Confederate shell exploded overhead, overturning a carriage and blocking the road. The panic had begun in earnest as people tried to swim across the creek. Soldiers were tossing aside knapsacks, muskets, and cartridge boxes, anything that would lighten their load. Caught up by the charging Confederates were Congressmen like Alfred Ely of New York, who was threatened with execution by a Confederate colonel. Ely ended up in a prison for several months.

The fleeing Federals did not stop until they were back in Washington. The Confederates, especially Jackson, wanted to press on to the city but they too were disorganized and exhausted to continue.

As night fell, the battle came to an end.

Several lessons were gained from this battle;
1. The Confederates were not going to be a pushover. The idea that one volley and they would run was disproved by noon on that day.
2. Johnston’s movement proved the value of railroads in military operations. This was a lesson that the Union was able to take full advantage of.
3. The idea of a glorious war was quashed as lists of those killed were published in Northern and Southern news papers. Both sides learned the blood price that would have to be paid in order for either side to win.
4. There can no longer be 90-day recruits to fight this war. There will have to be a long term commitment to any army that takes the field again.

McDowell was relieved of army command and he served a time in the Washington Defenses before receiving a corps command under Major General John Pope. Following another defeat on the same battlefield, he was relieved of field command and was named Commander of the Department of the Pacific in 1864.

As the South celebrated this first victory, few actually realized what the next few years will be like.

Causalities (Total):Union: 2896Confederate: 1982

Grave of Raphael Semmes, Commanding Officer, CSS Alabama

2007-06-29T13:41:00.000-06:00

Taken at the Catholic Cemetery, Mobile Alabama on 6/16/07

Grave of Confederate General Braxton Bragg, Magnolia Cemetery, Mobile AL.

2007-06-29T11:25:00.000-06:00

Bragg was in command of the Confederate Army of Tennesse at Chickamauga.

Palmito Ranch

2007-06-26T14:07:00.000-06:00

Dates: 12-13 May, 1865

Commanders:

Union: Colonel Theodore H. Barrett, commanding a Union force consisting of the 62nd United States Colored Troops and the 2nd Texas (US) Cavalry.

Confederate: Colonel John S. Ford, commanding a small force of Confederate troops.

Prelude: The Civil War is coming to an end. There are no more major Confederate armies in the field. The Government of the Confederate States of America has been disbanded, its leaders scattered in an attempt to escape or already prisoners of the Federals. Despite the lack of any major organized armies, there were many smaller units scattered around the country, still putting up a fight, but for the most part their commanders were either surrendering or just simply disbanding their units.

One small operation was in progress at the southernmost part of Texas. The purpose was not only to eliminate any further Confederate resistance, but it was also necessary to re-establish Federal control over the border region. Mexico was in the midst of its own civil war, with the deposed government of Benito Juarez fighting the forces of Emperor Maximillian and his army, consisting mainly of French troops. So, it became important that US President Andrew Johnson and the Federal Government secured the border as soon as possible.

The area involved in the operation is at the extreme southern tip of Texas. The only major town in the area is Brownsville. Across the Rio Grande River are the towns of Matamoros, across from Brownsville, and Bagdad, a port at the mouth of the Rio Grande where Confederate blockade runners could land their cargoes without Union interference. There was a Federal presence in the area, a small garrison at Brazos Santiago that was all that remained of an 1863-1864 operation that sent Union forces up the Rio Grande as far as Laredo, where they were turned back. Eventually, the Confederates reclaimed all the territory except for Brazos Santiago.

The 62nd USCT was previously called the 1st Missouri Colored Infantry. Their previous service was garrison duty at Baton Rouge, building fortifications. The only combat service so far was a one-day patrol which did not turn up anything. It must have been little relief when orders came in to relocate to Brazos Santiago. The attitude amongst the African-American soldiers was that it was believed that they were only good for garrison duty, a belief not unfounded. Still, they followed orders and marched to New Orleans, where they embarked.

In October of 1864, the unit arrived at Brazos Santiago, joining the 1000 man garrison, consisting of Illinois troops, the 81st USCT (Engineers), and the 2nd TX (US) Cavalry. This force was soon joined by the 34th Indiana, allowing the Illinois troops to be assigned to Major General E.R.S. Canby’s expedition against Mobile, AL. There was an attempt to assign the 62nd USCT to that operation, but was unsuccessful. In the end, the garrison commander, Brigadier General William Pile, departed, leaving Colonel Robert Jones in command. In April of 1865 Jones himself left, leaving Barrett in command.

The situation in South Texas was this: things were quiet in the area. The Confederate military presence was mostly small units. It was so quiet that there was even an attempt to negotiate with the Confederates for their surrender, which was rejected. The time came for a direct approach; with the war winding down (Barrett would have received dispatches about the Confederate surrender) it seemed the right time to sweep up the Rio Grande Valley.

Barrett decided to assemble a force for that sweep, with the aim to capture food, lumber, and horses. The 2nd TX (US) Cavalry did not have any horses. They would also engage any Confederate units that they found. Barrett decided to take the cavalry, as well as the 62nd USCT, about 250 men total. The plan was to march south from their encampment at the north end of Brazos Santiago, board a ferry that would take them to Point Isabel (now Port Isabel), and then head for Brownsville. The formation would be placed under the command of Lieutenant Colonel David Branson.

11 May, 1865: Early Morning: The Union formation departs their base and heads for the ferry landing, where id was discovered that the ferry’s steam engine had broken down. Barrett ordered Branson to return to camp and prepare to march to a crossing at Boca Chica.

That evening, the Federals reached Boca Chica and began to cross, despite approaching storms. By 9:30 p.m., the force was across and began marching southwest to the Rio Grande. There was intelligence that there was a small Confederate camp alongside the river at White’s Ranch.

12 May, 1865: 2:00 a.m.: As the Federals approached White’s Ranch, they split their column with the intent to encircle the camp and surprise the Confederates come dawn. As the campsite was reached, it was discovered that the place was deserted. It seemed that the Confederates moved up river. The next logical spot was Palmito Ranch. With the approaching dawn, Branson ordered his men to take cover in nearby thickets.

5:00 a.m.: Branson receives word that Mexicans on the south bank of the river has spotted then and were alerting the Confederates in Brownsville. Branson decided to press on to Palmito Ranch.

12:00 noon: Branson’s troops reach Palmito Ranch, finding the place deserted. He soon realizes he is in a pickle; his force is deep in enemy territory, the Confederates know of his presence, and even the Imperial Mexican Army was around, threatening to make trouble. Branson decides to secure the area, capturing three prisoners and a few supplies.

3:00 p.m.: A formation of Confederate troops were approaching from Brownsville. Branson decides to pull back toward White’s Ranch. This was accomplished amid skirmishing.

13 May, 1865: 8:00 a.m.: Arriving at White’s Ranch, Branson finds Barrett and about 200 troops from the 34th IN. Barrett assumes command of the combined force and orders an advance on Palmito Ranch.

10:00 a.m.: After a break for rest and food, the Union force sets off. The Confederates who had been skirmishing with Branson’s troops sent word to Brownsville. When the message reached there, the Confederate commander wanted to surrender, but Ford, the second-in-command decided otherwise.

11:00 a.m.: Ford, 200 mounted troops, and six cannon, depart Brownsville and head for Palmito Ranch.

Meanwhile, Barrett’s troops reach Palmito Ranch and proceeded to burn the barracks there. At the same time, Branson’s troops engage Confederate skirmishers, who were there to keep an eye on things until Ford arrived.

Barrett had originally placed his troops in line of battle formation along the road to Brownsville; the 34th IN on the road itself, the 62nd USCT to their right, and the 2nd TX (US) Cavalry between the two. They soon meet their first serious resistance from skirmishers near Palmito Hill.

2:00 p.m.: Barrett issues an order which turned out to be a grave mistake. He orders all his troops to encamp on Palmito Hill, with only five soldiers detailed to keep watch. Barrett’s intention was to rest for the night, then march to Point Isabel and back to Brazos Santiago. However, that was not to be.

3:00 p.m.: Ford arrives with his force and began deploying them. He found a rise west of Palmito Hill where the cannon could be deployed in support of one detachment. A smaller detachment was sent with two cannon as a flanking element to the north and east of the Federal position. The last two cannon was his reserve. With the skirmishers joining him, Ford had 360 total men at his disposal.

4:00 p.m.: Ford orders his troops to attack.

Barrett was caught totally by surprise.

The Federals respond by sending out two companies of the 34th IN as a skirmish line. The 2nd TX (US) covered the right, while the 62nd USCT covered the rear. This was a good defensive line except for one thing, the Federals did not bring any artillery with them, and they were starting to get pounded by the Confederate guns. Barrett orders a retreat.

The infantry began pulling back, with the cavalry keeping up a screen on their left. The Indiana troops went over Palmito Hill and headed for the road east, the African-American troops covered the right, keeping put a screen in order to protect that flank.

As Ford advanced, the 34th IN skirmishers were overrun and captured. The same happened to the 2nd TX (US), who were captured in the brush near Palmito Ranch.

It was noted that the Indiana troops were confused during the retreat, ending up exposed to Confederate artillery, and ran through the USCT formation, who were marching in good order.

Soon, the force was reformed; the 34th IN covered the supply wagons while the 62nd USCT maintained a rear-guard action. It was one such action that prevented Ford from cutting off the Federal retreat.

It took three hours for the force to reach Boca Chica, during which the 34th IN lost both of their flags.

14 May, 1865: Barrett’s troops complete their crossing back to Brazos Santiago, with the African-Americans “marching as from dress parade, twenty-eight inch step, music playing.” The Federals were safe; Ford’s pursuit had broken down several miles back, effectively ending the battle.

Branson was reported to say at the end of the operation, “That winds up the war.”

In a report dated 21 May, 1865, Barrett reported his losses as one killed, nine wounded, and 101 captured. The prisoners were brought to Brownsville and paroled.

By the end of May, all Confederate activity along the Rio Grande had ceased.

How ironic that the last battle of the Civil War was a Confederate victory.

The Fall of Mobile, AL

2007-06-25T13:14:00.000-06:00

Dates: 17 March to 12 April, 1865

Commanders:

Union: Major General E.R.S. Canby, commanding Union forces in the Mobile Bay area.

Confederate: Lieutenant General Richard Taylor, commanding the Department of Alabama, Mississippi and East Louisiana, and Major General Dabney Maury, commander of Confederate forces at Mobile.

Prelude: Even though the Federals had captured the entrance of Mobile Bay in a combined arms assault on 5 August, 1864, the upper bay, as well as the city of Mobile itself was still in Confederate hands. Even though the use of the port was limited, the river, rail and road networks were still useful. Taylor saw this usefulness as he allocated scarce resources to the defense of Mobile.

Canby had a lot of resources at his disposal, but not enough to make a grand assault on Mobile. He was, however, able to conduct raids that hampered the Confederate’s ability to defend the entire area. He held the strategic forts guarding the entrance of the bay, Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan, but capturing Mobile would tie up Confederate troops, since there were plans to launch an offensive into Alabama from Tennessee.

9 September, 1864: A Federal force of 250, supported by naval gunboats, attack and destroy the salt works on the Bon Secours River, northwest of Gulf Shores.

11 September, 1864: The same force destroyed Smith’s Mill, near the town of Marlow. On the way out, a force of 70 Confederates blocked the river with pine trees. After a short fight, the Federals were able to punch through and leave the area.

Maury proceeded to fortify the area by building fortifications at the towns of Blakeley and Spanish Fort, as well as sending heavy guns to Forts Tracy and Huger, overlooking the Apalachee River near Spanish Fort. He also received all the troops that Taylor could spare, resulting in a force on only 10,000, including cadets from a local military academy.

Canby received orders to capture Mobile, and then advance on the manufacturing center of Selma and the state capital of Montgomery, where the Confederacy was born. To reinforce him, Major General Frederick Steele was sent from Pensacola, FL with 13,000 troops. This gave Canby a force of 45,000 in which to take the offensive. In February and into March, 1865, he concentrated his troops at Forts Gaines and Morgan and prepared to execute his orders.

18 March, 1865: Canby sends 1700 of his forces up the west shore of Mobile Bay. This attracts the Confederate’s attention, but the actual attack will be from the east.

16 March, 1865: XIII Corps, commanded by Major General Gordon Granger, marched east from Fort Morgan and turned north near Gulf Shores.

19 March, 1865: Canby had also sent XVI Corps, commanded by Major General A.J. Smith across the bay to Fish River Landing, near Marlow. They reach Fish River Landing on the 20th and dug in to await XIII Corps.

On the same day, Steele’s troops began marching from Fort Barrancas, near Pensacola, heading north into Alabama to Pollard.

25 March, 1865: Both XVI and XIII Corps had met up at Marlow. Canby orders the march north to continue. They reach Deer Park later that day and entrench. Over five miles to the north was a Confederate line commanded by Liddell at D’Olive Creek.

26 March, 1865: Canby sent XVI Corps around the Confederate’s left flank, forcing Liddell to pull his troops to Spanish Fort. Canby then crossed D’Olive Creek.

On the same day, Steele’s troops reach Pollard. There they turned west, along the Mobile and Great Northern Railroad, to Canoe.

27 March, 1865: Battle of Spanish Fort: Confederate troops under Brigadier General Randall Gibson held a line of fortifications east of an old fort that dated from the time the area was under Spanish control. Canby advanced to within one-half mile of the entrenchments and ordered his troops to dig in themselves.

3:00 a.m.: Gibson sends out skirmishers and surprisingly drove back the Union pickets. Canby was able to get a good assessment of the Confederate defenses and orders a general advance. This results in Gibson’s troops coming under siege as their lines were surrounded.

Steele’s advance was delayed by bad roads, but that movement continued. They went to the northwest from Pollard to the Weatherford Plantation, where they turned southwest to Stockton. All the while, Steele’s cavalry had several skirmishes with scattered Confederate units.

30 March, 1865: Canby had placed several batteries on the north shore of Minette Bay, north of his lines. Not only did they cover his right flank, but fire from those guns took Forts Huger and Tracey out of the fight, further deteriorating the situation for Gibson.

31 March, 1865: Steele’s troops reach Stockton. There, they secure supplies; the Federal troops were on half rations until that point. Canby also helped by sending several wagons of supplies.

1 April, 1865: Steele approached Blakeley and engages the Confederate pickets, driving then into their defensive works.

2 April, 1865: The Confederate defenders at Blakeley launch a probe at Steele, which was turned back. Steele decided to entrench his lines. Help comes in the form of two of Canby’s divisions, sent from Spanish Fort.

Meanwhile, Canby was getting hit by Liddell, with one resulting in losing 23 Union troops as prisoners. Still, Canby advanced his lines forward.

8 April, 1865: Gibson orders an artillery bombardment with 46 guns. Canby responds with 90 guns of his own, rendering them ineffective. During the bombardment, the 8th Iowa moved around the Confederate left, causing the defensive line to collapse. Gibson counterattacks but fails to push the Federals back. That night, he orders his garrison to pull back to Fort Huger.

With Gibson’s withdrawal, Spanish Fort fell to Canby, who immediately orders his army to march to Blakeley. The full weight of his army could then be brought to bear on Liddell.

9 April, 1865: On the same day that General Robert E. Lee was surrendering the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House, VA, the last major battle of the Civil War began.

Battle of Blakeley: Canby arranged his forces thus; Steele to the north of his center, Granger and Smith to the south. Since 6 April, the Confederates tried to push away Steele’s troops, but to no avail. Now with the arrival of Canby, it was only a matter of time.

Liddell arranged his lines in a series of redoubts that held batteries of artillery. Canby threw up earthworks of his own. Still, it needed a frontal assault to push Liddell back.

5:25 p.m.: The Union assault begins with an assault on Redoubt #9, on the Confederate’s right flank. 20 minutes later, the Union troops assault Redoubt #4, under support by the 15th Massachusetts Battery. Led by the 83rd Ohio, under murderous Confederate fire, the Federals were able to push through a line of obstacles, and then a line of Confederate rifle pits. The defenders abandoned the pits and ran past the redoubt. The artillery in the redoubt resumed fire, but could not be depressed enough to stop the Federals. Redoubt #4 soon fell and the Confederate line was cracked.

5:30 p.m.: The Confederate left flank, consisting of Redoubts #1 and #2, were hit by the Division of Brigadier General John Hawkins. This division consisted of three brigades of African-American troops, had been engaging both ground and naval forces throughout the afternoon. As the rest of the Union line was going in, Hawkins’ men rushed forward through obstacles, including sub-terra torpedoes (land mines), and defensive fire and took the redoubts.

With the Confederate defensive line broken, and the naval support driven back, it turned out to every man for himself as Liddell tried to fall back across the river. Only 200 Confederates made it out.

10 April, 1865: Canby sent two divisions south to Starke’s Landing, where they boarded transports and sailed across Mobile Bay to Dog River Point on 12 April. From there, they began marching north towards Mobile itself.

Meanwhile, Maury was preparing to evacuate his garrison.

11 April, 1865: Forts Tracey and Huger opened up with an artillery barrage in order to cover the Confederate evacuation. After the last infantry departed, the cannon were spiked and the magazines were blown up.

12 April, 1865: Mobile Mayor R. H. Slough met Federal troops on the Bay Shell Road, south of the city and formally surrendered. This as the last Confederate defensive positions was abandoned.

Maury took his command north, burning railroad bridges as he went. Canby ordered a pursuit, hoping to prevent the retreating Confederates from linking up with other units. Around this time, the news of Lee’s surrender would have reached both sides. Despite this, there was still some skirmishing, proving to the Union that the war was not over yet.

30 April, 1865: Having also heard of the surrender of General Joseph Johnston’s army in North Carolina, Taylor approaches Canby about a cease fire. One was agreed but that was disallowed by Canby’s superiors. Taylor was told that he had 48 hours to surrender before the fighting was to resume.

4 May, 1865: Taylor formally surrenders his forces at Citronelle, AL, the last major force in the Department of Alabama, Mississippi, and East Louisiana.

This was just the latest Confederate army to surrender, there will be one more, General Edmund Kirby Smith’s army in the Trans-Mississippi, who surrender on 2 June, 1865, bringing a formal end of hostilities, with the exception of a few more skirmishes.

Article of Secession: Tennessee

2007-06-08T11:57:00.000-06:00

8 June, 1861

Declaration of Independence and Ordinance dissolving the Federal relations between the State of Tennessee and the United States of America.
1st. We. the people of the State of Tennessee, waiving an expression of opinion as to the abstract doctrine of secession, but asserting the right as a free and independent people to alter, reform, or abolish our form of Government in such manner as we think proper, do ordain and declare that all the laws and ordinances by which the State of Tennessee became a member of the Federal Union of the United States of America, are hereby abrogated and annulled, and that all obligations on put part be withdrawn therefrom; and we do hereby resume all the rights, functions and powers which by any of said ordinances were conveyed to the Government of the United States, and absolve ourselves from all the obligations, restraints, and duties incurred thereto; and do hereby henceforth become a free, sovereign, and independent State.
2nd. We furthermore declare and ordain, that Article 10, Sections 1 and 2 of the Constitution of the State of Tennessee, which requires members of the General Assembly, and all officers, civil and military, to take an oath to support the Constitution of the United States, be and the same are hereby abrogated and annulled, and all parts of the Constitution of the State of Tennessee, making citizenship of the United States a qualification for office, and recognizing the Constitution of the United States as the supreme law of this State, are in like manner abrogated and annulled.
3rd. We furthermore ordain and declare that all rights acquired and vested under the Constitution of the United States, or under any act of Congress passed in pursuance thereof, or under any laws of this State, and not incompatible with this ordinance, shall remain in force and have the same effect as if this ordinance had not been passed.

Article of Secession: North Carolina

2007-06-08T11:56:00.000-06:00

20 May, 1861

We, the people of the State of North Carolina, in Convention assembled, do declare and ordain, and it is hereby declared and ordained, that the ordinance adopted by the State of North Carolina, in the Convention of 1789, whereby the Constitution of the United States was ratified and adopted, and also all acts and parts of acts of the General assembly, ratifying and adopting amendments to said Constitution are hereby repealed, rescinded, and abrogated.
We do further declare and ordain that the Union now subsisting between the State of North Carolina and the other States, under the title of the United States of America, is hereby dissolved, and that the State of North Carolina is in the full possession and exercise of all those rights of sovereignty which belong and appertain to a free and independent State.
Done at Raleigh, 20th day of May, in the year of our Lord, 1861.

Article of Secession: Arkansas

2007-06-08T11:55:00.000-06:00

11 March 1861

Whereas, in addition to the well-founded causes of complaint set forth by this Convention, in resolutions adopted on the 11th March, A.D. 1861, against the sectional party now in power in Washington City, headed by Abraham Lincoln , he has, in the face or resolutions passed by this Convention, pledging the State of Arkansas to resist to the last extremity any attempt on the part of such power to coerce any State that seceded from the old Union, proclaimed to the world that war should be waged against such States until they should be compelled to submit to their rule, and large forces to accomplish this have by this same power been called out and are now being marshaled to carry out this inhuman design, and to longer submit to such rule or remain in the old Union on the United States would be disgraceful and ruinous to the State of Arkansas.
Therefore, we, the people of the State of Arkansas, in Convention assembled, do hereby declare and ordain, and it is hereby declared and ordained, that the “ordinance and acceptance of compact” passed and approved by the General assembly of the State of Arkansas, on the 18th day of October, A.D. 1836, whereby it was said General Assembly ordained that, by virtue of the authority vested in said General Assembly, by the provisions of the ordinance adopted by the convention of delegates assembled at Little Rock, for the purpose of forming a constitution and system of government for said State, the propositions set forth in “an act supplementary to an act entitled an act for the admission of the State of Arkansas into the Union, and to provide for the due execution of the laws of the United States within the same, and for other purposes, were freely accepted, ratified, and irrevocably confirmed articles of compact and union between the State of Arkansas and the United States,” and all other laws and every other law and ordinance, whereby the State of Arkansas became a member of the Federal Union, be, and the same are hereby in all respects and for every purpose herewith consistent repealed, abrogated, and fully set aside; and the Union now subsisting between the State of Arkansas and the other States, under the name of the United States of America, is hereby forever dissolved.
And we do further hereby declare and ordain, that the State of Arkansas hereby resumes to herself all rights and powers heretofore delegated to the Government of the United States of America---that her citizens are absolved from allegiance to said Government of the United States, and that she is in full possession and exercise of all the rights and sovereignty which appertain to a free and independent State.
We do further ordain and declare that all rights acquired and vested under the Constitution of the United States of America, or of any act or acts of Congress, or treaty, or under any law of this State, and not incompatible with this ordinance, shall remain in full force and effect, in nowise altered or impaired, and have the same effect as if this ordinance had not been passed.

Article of Secession: Virginia

2007-06-08T11:51:00.000-06:00

17 April, 1861

An ordinance to repeal the ratification of the Constitution of the United States of America, by the State of Virginia, and to resume all the rights and powers granted under said Constitution.
The people of Virginia, in the ratification of the Constitution of the United States of America, adopted by them in Convention, on the 25th day of June, in the year of our lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-eight, having declared the that the powers granted under the said Constitution were derived from the people of the United States, and might be resumed whensoever the same should be perverted to their injury and oppression, and the Federal Government having perverted said powers, not only to the injury of the people of Virginia, but to the oppression of the Southern slaveholding States.
Now, therefore, we, the people of Virginia, do declare and ordain, that the Ordinance adopted by the people of this State in Convention on the twenty-fifth day of June, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-eight, whereby the Constitution of the United States of America was ratified, and all acts of the General Assembly of this State ratifying or adopting amendments to said Constitution are hereby repealed and abrogated; that the union between the State of Virginia and the other States under the Constitution aforesaid is hereby dissolved, and that the State of Virginia is in the full possession of all the rights of sovereignty which belong and appertain to a free and independent State. And they do further declare that said Constitution is no longer binding on any of the citizens of this State.
This Ordinance shall take effect and be an act of this day, when ratified by a majority of the votes of the people of this State, cast at a poll to be taken thereon on the fourth Thursday in May next, in pursuance of a schedule hereafter to be enacted.
Done in Convention in the city of Richmond, on the seventeenth day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-one, and in the eighty-fifth year of the commonwealth of Virginia.
A true copy.
JON. L. EUBANK
Secretary of Convention

Article of Secession: Texas

2007-06-08T11:50:00.000-06:00

1 February, 1861

An Ordinance to dissolve the Union between the State of Texas and other States united with her under the compact of Government styled “The Constitution of the United States of America”
SEC 1: Whereas the Federal Government has failed to accomplish the purposes of the compact of union between these States, in giving protection either to the persons of our people upon an exposed frontier, or to the property of our citizens; and whereas the action of the Northern States is violative of the compact between the States and the guarantees of the Constitution; and whereas the recent developments in Federal affairs make it evident that the power of the Federal Government is sought to be made a weapon with which to strike down the interests and property of the people of Texas and her sister slaveholding States, instead of permitting it to be, as was intended---our shield against outrage and aggression; therefore “We, the people of the State of Texas, by delegates in the Convention assembled, do declare and ordain that the ordinance adopted by out Convention of delegates on the (4th) day of July, A.D. 1845, and afterwards ratified by us, under which the Republic of Texas was admitted into the Union with other States, and became a party to the compact styled ‘The Constitution of the United States of America’ be, and is hereby repealed and annulled.
That all the powers which, by the said compact, were delegated by Texas to the Federal Government are resumed. That Texas is of right absolved from all restraints and obligations incurred by said compact, and is a sovereign State, and that her citizens and people are absolved from all allegiance to the United States or the Government thereof.
SEC 2: This ordinance shall be submitted to the people of Texas for their ratification or rejection, by the qualified voters, on the 23rd day of February, 1861; and unless rejected by a majority of the votes cast, shall take effect and be in force on or after the 2nd day of March, A.D. 1861. Provided that in the representative district of El Paso said election may be held on the 18th of February, 1861.
Done by the people of the State of Texas, in convention assembled, at Austin, the 1st day of February, A.D. 1861.

Article of Secession: Louisiana

2007-06-08T11:48:00.000-06:00

26 January, 1861

An Ordinance to dissolve the Union between the State of Louisiana and other States united with her under the compact of Government entitled “The Constitution of the United States of America”
We, the people of the State of Louisiana, in Convention assembled, do declare and ordain, and it is hereby declared and ordained, that the Ordinance passed by us in Convention on the 22nd day of November, in the year 1811, whereby the Constitution of the United States of America, and the amendments of said Constitution, were adopted, and all laws and ordinances by which the State of Louisiana became a member of the Federal Union, be, and the same are hereby, repealed and abrogated; and that the union now subsisting between Louisiana and other States, under the name of the “United States of America,” is hereby dissolved.
We do further declare and ordain, that the State of Louisiana hereby resumes all rights and powers heretofore delegated to the Government of the United States of America; that her citizens are absolved from all allegiance to said Government; and that she is in full possession and exercise of all those rights of sovereignty which appertain to a free and independent State.
We do further declare and ordain, that all rights acquired and vested under the Constitution of the United States, or any act of Congress or treaty, or under any law of this State and not incompatible with this ordinance, shall remain in force, and have the same effect as if this ordinance had not been passed.
The undersigned hereby certifies that the above ordinance is a true copy of the original ordinance adopted this day by the Convention of the State of Louisiana.
Given under my hand and the great seal of Louisiana, at Baton Rouge, this 26th day of January, in the year of our Lord, 1861.
A. MOUTON; Pres. of the Convention.
J. Thomas Wheat, Secretary of the Convention.

Article of Secession: Georgia

2007-06-08T11:47:00.000-06:00

18 January, 1861

An Ordinance to dissolve the Union between the State of Georgia and other States united with her under the compact of Government entitled “The Constitution of the United States”
We the people of the State of Georgia, in Convention assembled, do declare and ordain, and it is hereby declared and ordained, that the ordinance adopted by the people of Georgia in Convention in the year 1788, whereby the Constitution of the United States was assented to, ratified, and adopted, and also all acts and parts of acts of the General Assembly ratifying and adopting the amendments to the said Constitution, are hereby repealed, rescinded, and abrogated; and we do further declare and ordain, that the Union now subsisting between the State of Georgia and other States, under the name of the United states of America, is hereby dissolved; and that the State of Georgia is in full possession and exercise of all those rights of sovereignty which belong and appertain to a free and independent State.

Article of Secession: Alabama

2007-06-08T11:45:00.000-06:00

11 January, 1861

An Ordinance to dissolve the Union between the State of Alabama and other States united under the compact styled “The Constitution of the United States of America”

Whereas, the election of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin to the offices of President and Vice-President of the United States of America, by a sectional party, avowedly hostile to the domestic institutions and to the peace and security of the people of the State of Alabama, preceded by many and dangerous infractions of the Constitution of the United States by many of the States and people of the Northern section, is a political wrong of so insulting and menacing a character as to justify the people of Alabama in the adoption of prompt and decided measures for their future peace and security:
Therefore, Be it declared and ordained by the people of the State of Alabama in convention assembled, That the State of Alabama now withdraws , and is hereby withdrawn from the Union known as “the United States of America” and henceforth ceases to be one of said United States ad is, and right ought to be, a sovereign and independent State.

SEC 2: Be it further declared and ordained by the people of the State of Alabama in convention assembled, That all of the powers over the territory of said State, and over the people thereof, heretofore delegated to the Government of the United States of America, be and they are hereby withdrawn from said Government, and are hereby resumed and vested in the people of the State of Alabama.
And as it is the desire and purpose of the State of Alabama to meet the slaveholding States of the South who may approve such purpose, in order to frame a provisional as well as a permanent government upon the principles of the Constitution of the United States.
Be it resolved by the people of Alabama in convention assembled, That the people of the States of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri, be, and are hereby, invited to meet the people of the State of Alabama, by there delegates, in convention, on the 4th of February, A.D. 1861, for the purpose of consulting with each other as to the most effectual mode of securing concerted and harmonious action in whatever measures may be deemed most desirable for our common peace and security.

And be it further resolved, That the president of this Convention be, and is hereby, instructed to transmit forthwith a copy of the forgoing preamble, ordinance, and resolutions, to the Governors of the several States named in said resolutions.
Done by the people of the State of Alabama in Convention assembled, at Montgomery, on this, the 11th day of January, A.D. 1861
WM.M. BROOKS, President of the Convention.

Article of Secession: Misissippi

2007-06-08T11:42:00.000-06:00

9 January, 1861

The people of Mississippi, in convention assembled, do ordain and declare, and it is hereby ordained and declared, as follows, to wit;
SEC 1: That all the laws and ordinances by which the said State of Mississippi became a member of the Federal Union of the United States of America be, and the same are hereby repealed, and that all obligations on the part of the said State, or the people thereof, be withdrawn, and that the said State does hereby resume all the rights, functions, and powers which by any of the said laws and ordinances were conveyed to the Government of the United States, and is absolved from all the obligations, restraints, and duties incurred to the said Federal Union, and shall henceforth be a free, sovereign, and independent State.

SEC 2: That so much of the first section of the seventh article of the Constitution of this State, as requires members of the Legislature and all officers, both legislative and judicial, to take an oath to support the Constitution on the United States, be, and the same is hereby abrogated and annulled.

SEC 3: That all rights acquired and vested under the Constitution of the United States, or under any act of Congress passed in pursuance thereof, or any law of this State, and not incompatible with this ordinance, shall remain in force, and have the same effect as if the ordinance had not been passed.
SEC 4: That the people of the State of Mississippi, hereby consent to form a Federal Union with such of the States as have seceded or may secede from the Union of the United States of America, upon the basis of the present Constitution of the United States, except such parts thereof as embrace other portions than such seceded States

Article of Secession: Florida

2007-06-08T11:41:00.000-06:00

7 January, 1862

Whereas, all hope pf preserving the union upon terms consistent with the safety and honor of the slaveholding States, has been fully dissipated by the recent indications of the strength of the anti-slavery sentiment pf the free States; therefore,
Be it enacted by the people of Florida, in convention assembled, That it is the right of the several States of the Union, at such time, and for such cause as in the opinion of the people of such States acting in their sovereign capacity, may be just and proper, to withdraw from the Union, and, in the opinion of this Convention, the existing causes are such as to compel Florida to proceed to exercise this right.
We, the people of the State of Florida, in convention assembled, do solemnly ordain, publish, and declare that the State of Florida hereby withdraws herself from the Confederacy of States existing under the name of The United States of America, and from the existing Government of the said States; and that all political connections between her and the Government of said States ought to be, and the same is hereby totally annulled, and said Union of States dissolved; the State of Florida is hereby declared a sovereign and independent nation; and that all ordinances heretofore adopted, in as so far as they create or recognize said Union, are rescinded; and all laws, or parts of laws, in force in this State, in so far as they recognize or assent to said Union be and they are hereby repealed.

Article of Secession: South Carolina

2007-06-08T11:37:00.000-06:00

20 December, 1860

We the people of South Carolina, in convention assembled, to declare and ordain, and it is hereby declared and ordained, that the ordinance adopted by us in convention on the twenty third day of May in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty eight, whereby the Constitution of the United States of America was ratified, and also all acts and parts of acts of the General Assembly of this State, ratifying amendments of the said Constitution, are hereby repealed; and the union now subsisting between South Carolina and other States, under the name "United States of America" is hereby dissolved. Done at Charleston the twentieth day of December in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty.

The Lincoln Assassination

2007-05-29T14:39:00.000-06:00

Prelude: The Civil War will soon be at an end. The Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by General Robert E. Lee, surrendered at Appomattox Court House, VA on 9 April, 1865. The government of CS President Jefferson Davis had fled Richmond, VA and relocated to the small town of Danville. There is another Confederate army in the field, a scratch force of militia and the remains of the Army of Tennessee, under General Joseph Johnston. They are presently near the Raleigh-Durham, NC area, pursued by Major General William Sherman’s Western Federal Armies. Another army, under Lieutenant General Edmund Kirby Smith, is operating in the Trans-Mississippi, but can be of no help. There also are a few independent commands like Colonel John Singleton Mosby’s Virginia Partisans and Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest’s cavalry, but they cannot sustain any offensive power for very long.

The mood in Washington D.C. is understandably jubilant. There had been cannon salutes and bells ringing in the city, as throughout the North. Plans were being made for Grand Review of the Union armies before a large number of soldiers were to be demobilized and sent back to civilian life. Politicians in Congress were preparing to wrangle over what policies were to be used in dealing with the states of the defeated Confederacy. The Radical Republicans wanted very harsh measure taken against those states, even considering measures to downgrade them to Territorial status. Moderates and a few Democrats wanted less harsh measures taken. The prospect on a massive political fight was brewing.

US President Abraham Lincoln had plans for his newly started second term. A major clue as to his intentions was in his Second Inaugural Address. “With malice toward none, and charity toward all” he signaled his intention to greet the South as long lost family members. His was looking at putting the Civil War behind and looking forward to the future. There were two problems to tackle; the integration of nearly 4,000,000 former African-American slaves into American society, and the restoration, or what some was calling reconstruction, of the former Confederate States back into the Union. Lincoln was sure that he would be able to get those problems settled.

Someone else had other ideas.

John Wilkes Booth was an actor. Actually he was from a family of actors, sort of like the Barrymore, the Douglas, and the Bridges families of the 20th Century. His father was Junius Brutus Booth and his brother was Edwin Booth, both renowned actors in their own right and was famous for portraying characters from Shakespeare. John was great for portraying villains. John (hereafter referred to as Booth) was a Marylander who supported the Confederacy and was disheartened to see its fall. Because of this, he had a deep hatred for Lincoln. It was an irony that Lincoln was a great fan of Booth’s, having attended many plays in which he starred.

As the Confederacy was falling, Booth had devised to kidnap the President and spirit him to Richmond, intending that Lincoln be used as a bargaining chip for a prisoner exchange and a negotiated settlement that would preserve the CSA.

To assist him, he gathered a gang of what had to be a gang of misfits in order to carry out his plan.

Lewis Powell (aka Lewis Payne)
George Atzerodt
David Herold
John Surratt
Edward Spangler

At times, the group would meet at the boarding house ran by Surratt’s mother, Mary. There they planed the kidnapping. One scheme was to grab Lincoln at the theatre and spirit him off. Another was to seize him as he took his customary evening carriage ride.

4 March, 1865: At President Lincoln’s Second Inauguration, Booth and his men were in the crowd and close enough to strike, but there was security in the form of Union troops there, so that could not go off.

17 March, 1865: There was attempt to kidnap Lincoln during a carriage ride, but he changes plans, going to the National Hotel, where by coincidence Booth was staying.

After the surrender, during the wild celebrations that were going on, a crowd appeared at the White House and called for the President to make a speech. Lincoln comes out onto the balcony and reads a few prepared. Those in the crowd expected a fiery message; instead, Lincoln was conciliatory towards the surrendering Southerners. He read his speech, and let the papers fall to the floor. Towards the end of the speech, the subject changed to the status of the freed African-Americans. Lincoln was putting forth plans for eventually granting the vote to African-American males.

In the crowd was Booth, who upon hearing this muttered, “That means n****r citizenship. By God, I’ll run him through!”

Booth had just decided to kill Lincoln.

Booth and his men not only began to plan the murder, but expanded the plan to include Vice-President Andrew Johnson, Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant, and Secretary of State William Seward. This would effectively decapitate the government and cause a Constitutional crisis over who would succeed Lincoln.

Booth learns that Lincoln will be attending the performance of Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theatre on 14 April, Good Friday. He decides that the plan will be executed that evening.

14 April, 1865: 7:00 a.m. President Lincoln wakes that morning remembering a strange dream that he had earlier that week. He floats around the White House and hears sobbing. He enters a room draped in black and containing a coffin surrounded by soldiers. He asks a soldier who was in the coffin. The answer was, “The President, he was killed by an assassin.” He told his wife, Mary, as well as several Cabinet members of this. They were frightened of this but Lincoln laughed it off. He also mentioned the dream he had that past night, of being on a ship flying toward an indefinite shore. He had this dream before, usually before a great event. Perhaps he would soon hear from Sherman about Johnston’s surrender.

11:00 a.m.: Lincoln meets with General Grant. At the same time, he sends a messenger to Ford’s Theater confirming that he would be attending that evening. Booth could have possibly heard about this while at the theatre, where he regularly played. He had his mail delivered there and would have been at the theatre office when the message arrived. Sometime afterwards, he snuck to the Presidential box, bored a peephole in the door and fixed it so the door could be jammed open.

During this time, Lincoln extended an invitation to Grant and his wife, Julia to accompany the Lincoln’s to the theatre. Grant politely refuses, stating that he and Julia had tickets on the evening train to New Jersey, where the Grant’s rented a house.

Lincoln and Grant discussed the ongoing situation in North Carolina, as well as other plans to gat the remainder of the Confederate Armed Forces to lay down their arms. Another plan discussed was the reintroduction of civil government to the Southern States as soon as possible, knowing well that there would be a period of military administration but hoping that could be short.

As far as that administration was concerned, after the meeting, Grant and Lincoln met with the Cabinet in a three-hour session. It was decided that the various departments would resume operations in the South as soon as possible. It was also decided to divide the former Confederacy into districts and appoint military governors to oversee them for now. After Grant briefed the Cabinet on ongoing operations, the meeting adjourned.

3:00 p.m.: Lincoln decides to take a carriage ride with Mary. They discuss what to du when his time as President comes to an end. Of course, he wants to return to his old law practice in Springfield, IL. However, he would like to see Europe, Jerusalem, and California before settling home for good.

3:00 p.m.: At the Kirkwood house, where Vice-President Johnson receives a note that reads, “Don’t wish to disturb you. Are you at home? J. Wilkes Booth.”

Later on, Mary asks Clara Harris, the daughter of a New York Senator, and her fiancée, Major Henry Rathbone to accompany the Presidential party.

As the Lincoln’s were preparing to go to the theatre, his bodyguard, William Crook asked if he should accompany them, Lincoln refused, saying, ”You’ve had a long, hard day’s work and must go home.” As the Lincoln’s board the carriage, the President said, “Good-by,” which Crook thought unusual.

6:30 p.m.: Booth has supper at the National Hotel.

8:15 p.m.: The Presidential carriage departs the White House. The performance had just started.

8:30 p.m.: As the Presidential arrived at Ford’s Theatre, the conspirators were meeting at Herndon House, on the opposite side of the block from Ford’s. There, Booth would give out final instructions. At the same time he loads his weapon, a single-shot derringer. He also carries a knife.

After sending his accomplices to do their work, Booth goes to a stable, where he had rented a horse. From there, he rode to the alley behind the theatre, where he gives a stage hand a few coins and asks him to hold the horse.

As the Presidential party arrived in the box, the orchestra stopped their playing of the play’s music and launched into several courses of “Hail to the Chief.” The audience stood and cheered the President for a few minutes before settling down and the play resuming. The audience was having a good time watching the play. It was about an American frontiersman who visits his British cousins, one of which was played by the popular British actress Laure Keene.

9:30 p.m. Booth enters the theatre, checks how the play was progressing, then ducks out to the bar next door and has a drink. He does this several times. During one of those times, he is spotted by the ticket seller, John Buckingham, who is also having a drink, but it does not strike him as unusual.

10:00 p.m.: Booth reenters the theatre and heads to the Presidential Box. He notices that the policeman assigned to guard the door was not there, having gone downstairs to see the play. He looks through the peephole and waits for a line in the play that would generate the most laughter:

Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal---you sockdologizing old man-trap…

The audience roars with laughter, Booth quickly steps in the box, pulls out his derringer, points it inches from the back of Lincoln’s head, and pulls the trigger. The ball crashes through Lincoln’s head and lodged behind his right eye.

The shot is heard in the theatre, but is believed to be part of the play. Then they see a man jump from the Presidential Box to the stage. The man stumbles, then shouts, “sic simper tyrannis.” It means “thus always to tyrants” and coincidentally the motto of the State of Virginia. The man stumbles away. Then they hear a woman scream, “The President is shot1”
After shooting the President, Booth then grappled with Rathbone, slashing him with his knife. His jump to the stage resulted in a broken ankle. He stumbled through the stage door, into the alley, mounts his horse, and rides off into the night.

10:15: p.m.: Powell arrives at the Seward house. The Secretary of State is in bed recovering from a broken jaw suffered in a carriage accident. His head is encased in a steel brace that keeps him immobile. Powell forces his way into the house, pushes aside a secretary and runs upstairs, where he is confronted by Seward’s son, Frederick. After an exchange of words, Powell pulls out a knife and slashes Frederick. Then he pushes into Seward’s room and proceeds to attack him. Seward is stabbed in the cheek and neck several times, but the brace prevents fatal injury. Powell then runs out of the house, after slashing several others, and shouting, “I’m mad! I’m mad!” All of those injured would recover.

At the same time, Atzerodt was at the bar of the Kirkwood House having a few drinks in order to steel his nerve. His assignment was to knock on the door of Vice-President Johnson’s room and stab him in the chest when the door opened. Atzerodt gets cold feet and leaves the hotel, instead going to a tavern and getting drunk.

At ford’s theatre, two doctors, Army Surgeon Charles Leale and civilian doctor Charles Taft, quickly run to the President’s side and began checking out the wound. All of his experience treating bullet wounds served him well but told him one thing, the wound was mortal. It was decided to get Lincoln to a bed and make him comfortable. There was a boarding house, Peterson House, where a room was made available. Sever men assisted in carrying the President across the street and to the available room. The bed was too short for Lincoln’s very tall frame, so he had to be laid diagonally. Soon the Lincoln’s doctor, Robert Stone, and the US Surgeon General, Joseph Barnes arrived to attend him. Mary came in a few times and was very hysterical, and had to be restrained.

The news of the President’s shooting was quickly relayed by telegraph, so people in New York and Chicago woke up the next morning to that news. The same telegraph got news to Grant, who was having dinner with Julia in Philadelphia while waiting for the overnight train to Burlington, NJ. He completed the journey, then ordered an express train to get him back to Washington.

Panic swept the city as rumors ranging from Confederate holdout raiders to the entire government getting massacred. It actually would be up the Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, to attempt to restore order.

15 April, 1865: Meanwhile, Booth and Harold join up and head to the house of Dr Samuel Mudd, a Confederate sympathizer who sets the broken ankle.

Throughout the night, Lincoln was attended by doctors, members of the Cabinet and other government officials as he struggled to stay alive. Several times Mary would enter the room, but would be taken out due to her constant hysterics. On one visit she cried, “Oh my God, and I have given my husband to die.”

6:00 a.m.: A doctor writes in his notebook: Pulse failing.

6: 25 a. m.: Another note: Chocking and grunting.

7:00 a.m.: Another note: Symptoms of Dissolution.

The family was brought in for the last time. Mary sobbed while the oldest son, Robert, also grieved.

7:22 a.m.: The 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, died. Stanton at that point said, “Now, he belongs to the angels.” This was later amended to “Now, he belongs to the ages.”

When the news of the president’s death was released, it fires brought grief, then anger to the North. The rumors began flying, people believed that this was done on the orders of Jeff Davis and that Confederate agents were swarming the city. Washington sat on the brink of anarchy. This could destroy the nation.

One bright spot came when it was made known that Vice-President Johnson was found to be safe. A military guard was quickly sent to Kirkwood House to protect him.

11:00 a.m.: Chief Justice Salmon Chase administers the Oath of Office to Andrew Johnson, who becomes the 17th President of the United States.

Meanwhile, Booth and Harold continue fleeing as they and the other conspirators are identified. As the manhunt begins, there is a $100,000 reward for booth’s capture.

19 April, 1865: The state funeral of Abraham Lincoln takes place. The city is draped in black bunting as the body lies on state at the White House. Later, it is moved to the Capitol rotunda for public display.

21 April, 1865: Lincoln’s body is placed on a special train for transport back to Springfield. The train will travel across the country, with funerals and public viewings in cities like Philadelphia, New York, Cleveland, and Chicago before arriving in Springfield on 3 May. After one last funeral, Lincoln is buried in 4 May, 1865.

Through all of this, Booth and Harold flee into Virginia, crossing the Potomac River on 22 April.

24 April, 1865: Booth and Harold arrive at the farm owned by a man named Richard Garrett. Using the alias James W. Boyd, Booth arranges the stay in the barn. That night, Federal cavalry came past, looking for Booth and Harold. Garrett manages to hold then off, but want Booth and Harold to leave. Booth talks him into one more night.

26 April, 1865: At 2:00 a.m., Federal cavalry once again approach the Garrett farm. The commander asks where Booth is, one of Garrett’s sons points to the barn. The troopers surround the barn and called for Booth to come out. Booth shouts, “Well, my brave boys, then you can prepare a stretcher for me.” Some hay was lighted and thrown at the barn, which began to burn.

Harold surrendered, but Booth was still holding out. Cavalry Sergeant Boston Corbett went to the back side of the barn. He saw Booth highlighted by the flames and, in violation of orders, shot him. Other troopers dragged Booth out of the barn, but it was obvious that he was dying. Corbett’s bullet had severed Booth’s spine.

As the day dawned, Booth asked to see his hands. He utters the words “Useless, useless.” then he died. It was his 27th birthday.

The conspirators were quickly rounded up, with some being placed in the Old Capital Prison while others were held on board an ironclad warship. Spangler was the first arrested, next was Arnold, then Paine and Mary Surratt were arrested. Next came Atzerodt, then Mudd (when Booth’s sliced boot was discovered), and finally another, Michael McLaughlin, all joining Harold in prison.

9 May, 1865: The trials of the conspirators began. This was conducted by the military, with Major General David Hunter as the presiding officer. Plenty of evidence was presented, but with the public uproar over the assassination, the court actually tried to prove that they were acting on orders from Jefferson Davis, who had just been captured near Irwinville, GA. In all, it was proven that they were just a bunch of misfits who were controlled by Booth. In the end, they were found guilty.

Paine, Atzerodt, Harold, and Mary Surratt (whose only crime was that she kept the boarding house where the meetings took place) were sentenced to death. The rest were sentenced to life imprisonment at Dry Tortugas Island, off Key West, FL. Mc Laughlin died in prison, Mudd is pardoned in 1868, and Spangler and Arnold are pardoned in 1869.

7 July, 1865: The four condemned prisoners are hanged at Old Capital Prison.

This put an end to what had to be the most horrific event that marred the end the Union victory in the American Civil War.

Forrest’s 1864 Raids.

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Dates: 16 March to 5 November, 1864

Commanders:

Union: Major Generals Samuel Sturgis and Andrew Smith, each commanding Union formations sent to find Forrest.

Confederate: Major General Nathan Bedford Forrest, command an independent force of cavalry.

Prelude: Things in the Deep South were not settled as far as the Federals were concerned. Despite Union successes in the area, the Confederacy was not ready to give up just yet. There was not a major army in the immediate area; the Army of Tennessee was in Georgia, and soon be facing Major General William Sherman’s thrust into the state. The next closest army was in Arkansas and would not be of any help. The only creditable Confederate force was Forrest’s independent cavalry command, and he was about to make his presence known.

16 March, 1864: Forrest and his troopers depart Okolona, MS and began his raids.

Forrest rides north into Tennessee, cutting straight through until almost reaching the Kentucky line.

24 March, 1864: Forrest launched a surprise attack on the Union garrison at Union City, capturing the force of 500 troops and seizing 300 horses for his trooper’s use.

With those fresh horses, Forrest then punches into Kentucky.

25 March, 1864: A quick ride brings Forrest to Paducah, KY, on the Ohio River. First, he demands the surrender of nearby Fort Anderson, next, when that demand was refused, he orders the fort assaulted. After two unsuccessful tries, Forrest decides to head back to Tennessee.

With Confederate troops at the Ohio River, a general sense of panic erupted amongst the locals. Federal cavalry unite are assembled and ordered to meet the threat that Forrest represents.

30 March, 1864: One such Federal cavalry unit meets Forrest at Bolivar, TN. They quickly retreat to Memphis.

As April began, Forrest conducted raids on Union communication and supply lines and evading Federal patrols. Soon he would take the offensive once more on Federal garrisons.

12 April, 1864: Battle of Fort Pillow: Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi River, had been a Union garrison since 1862. At this point in the war, the garrison consisted of 557 Federal troops, made up of Tennessee Unionists and locally recruited former African-American slaves. Forrest went with his usual method of operation and demanded the surrender of the garrison. When that was refused, he ordered the fort assaulted. When he learned about the composition of the garrison, it must have angered Forrest greatly. The very thought of “slaves” opposing him must have been appalling. His attitude was due to the fact that one of his pre-war occupations was a slave dealer. In any case Forrest ordered a massed assault, which quickly overwhelms the fort. Afterwards, according to some accounts, many of the African-Americans were killed after surrendering. Total Union losses were 231 dead, 100 wounded, and 226 captured. Forrest loses 14dead and 86 wounded.

What was called the “Massacre at Fort Pillow” made great press in the North as well as resulting in a Congressional hearing on the battle. The charges of atrocities committed were denied by Forrest, who claimed that some Union troops kept fighting after their commander surrendered.

Forrest continued his raiding. He heads back into Kentucky.

13 April, 1864: Forrest’s troopers raid Columbus, KY.

14 April, 1864: This day sees Forrest’s forces skirmishing at Paducah, KY.

Sherman, in his new capacity as Commander of Union Armies in the West, decides that something needs to be done about Forrest. All of the supply lines that he needed for the push into Georgia would be in danger if Forrest was able to run unchecked. Sherman orders Sturgis to take a force into Mississippi in order to draw out Forrest.

1 June, 1864: Sturgis, with a force of 8100, departs Memphis and heads southeast, hoping to pursue Forrest.

Forrest was actually in Alabama preparing to raid Sherman’s supply lines. When news of the new Federal force was known, he was ordered to go back into Mississippi.

7 June, 1864: Sturgis engages a small Confederate force at Ripley, MS, driving them off. His cavalry, under Brigadier General Benjamin Grierson, pushes on to a junction known as Brice’s Crossroads.

10 June, 1864: Battle of Brice’s Crossroads: Forrest, trying to intercept Sturgis, does intercept Grierson’s cavalry at the crossroads. Forrest orders his troopers into the attack. The first assault was repulsed by Federals using revolving rifles. A second assault pushes the Union troops back to the crossroads itself. Five miles away, Sturgis’ main force was alerted to the fighting and began double timing to the sound of the guns. Despite the hot weather and muddy roads from recent rains, the infantry reach the crossroads. The form a line to meet Forrest’s attack, but the Union cavalry did not rally. Forrest took advantage of the exposed Federal flanks to launch several attacks over the next three hours. Finally the Federals had to withdraw, leaving Forrest in possession of the crossroads. As the Union troops fled, the Confederates pursued then until 12 June. Sturgis returns to Memphis with the remainder of his army. He lost 2235 troops to Forrest’s 492.

It was time to go back to the drawing board, Sherman decided on a larger force, this time about 14,000 and orders Smith to go after Forrest.

5 July, 1864: Smith and his forces depart La Grange, TN and head south into Mississippi.

7 July, 1864: Smith’s cavalry engages Confederates at Ripley in a small skirmish.

Forrest decided that he needed additional troops and ordered Major General Stephen D. Lee to join him at Okolona. At the same time, Smith was headed to Tupelo, north of Okolona.

13 July, 1864: As Smith approaches Tupelo, Forrest launches two attacks that are repulsed. Forrest decided to pull back and attack the next day.

14 July, 1864: Battle of Tupelo: Forrest launches attack after attack in the hopes of breaking the Federal line. Despite all of that, the Union troops hold firm and Forrest has to withdraw. Even so, he still has a formidable force in the field. Smith, on the other hand, despite the victory, has to withdraw due to the lack of supplies. Smith’s losses at Tupelo are 674 while Forrest lost 996. Forrest himself was wounded.

Smith orders his troops back to Tennessee.

Forrest stands his forces down for rest and refit. It would be a while before he would go back to the field.

18 August, 1864: At Oxford, MS, Forrest gathers his troops together and launches another raid.

They head west to the main rail line to Memphis and follow that to Hernando.

21 August, 1864: Forrest launched a pre-dawn raid into Memphis itself, almost capturing two Federal generals. The Confederates occupied part of the city briefly before responding Union troops managed to drive him off.

Once again, Forrest vanishes, leaving the Federals with egg on their faces. However, this would not be the last word from the Confederates.

29 October, 1864: Forrest goes out on another raid, this time to Fort Heiman, on the Tennessee River. He used his artillery to engage Federal steamboats, managing to capture two. He puts the vessels to good use, disrupting shipping along the river.

2 November, 1864: Forrest loses half of his “navy” when one of his vessels, the Venus, is driven ashore near Johnsonville.

4 November, 1864: The other vessel, the Undine, is burned to avoid recapture. Forrest orders his artillery dragged to riverbank opposite Johnsonville. He then proceeds to shell the town and the steamboats tied to the docks. This destroys a major Union supply center, several steamboats, and about $6,700,000 worth of material for the Union war effort. Satisfied with the destruction he had brought, Forrest then headed into Alabama, where he would join the Army of Tennessee in the ill-fated Tennessee Campaign (the one that ended with the destruction of that army at Nashville).

After that campaign, Forrest would operate in Alabama and Georgia before surrendering in 1865.

His black marks in history would be the Massacre at Fort Pillow as well as becoming one of the early leaders of the Ku Klux Klan, an organization made up of ex-Confederates aimed at suppressing the newly granted rights given to African-Americans. To his credit, Forrest did regret the KKK membership before his death in 1877.

Get there first with the most men.
----Forrest’s military philosophy.

Florida, 1864

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Dates: 5-20 February, 1864

Commanders:

Union: Brigadier General Truman Seymour, commanding Federal forces in Florida.

Confederate: Brigadier General Joseph Finnegan, commanding Confederate forces in Florida.

Prelude: This is not a widely read part of Civil War history. As a matter of fact, except for Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, and some islands such as the Dry Tortugas and the Keys, Florida did not figure too much in Union plans for overall victory. However, supplies and troops have flowed north. It became important to halt that flow, as well as giving support to Unionists living in Florida.

The plan agrees upon was to take Jacksonville and set up a base there. From there they would advance west, possibly as far as Pensacola.

5 February, 1864: Seymour and 6000 troops depart Port Royal, SC on troop transports.

7 February, 1864: The Federal flotilla, supported by gunboats commanded by Rear Admiral John Dahlgren, reaches Jacksonville. The city is occupied immediately.

Seymour decided to send out cavalry in order to check out the area and see how the Confederates have set up their defenses.

8 February, 1864: Colonel Guy Henry leads a detachment of cavalry west from Jacksonville to Baldwin, where they engage local Confederate troops in a major skirmish.

10 February, 1864: Following the engagement at Baldwin, the Federals cross the St Mary’s River and pressed on towards Lake City.

11 February, 1864: While approaching Lake City, Henry runs into a force of 600 Confederates. Despite outnumbering the defenders, Henry orders a withdrawal to Barber’s Crossing, on the St Mary’s River.

Now that the Federal invasion was in earnest, a defensive force of 4600 infantry, 600 cavalry and 12 cannon were assembled and placed under Finnegan’s command. He decided to march east and attempt to drive out Seymour from Jacksonville.

At the same time, a proclamation was released by the Federals announcing that Florida was now Federal territory. It does not go down too well with the locals.

13 February, 1864: Seymour marches his army west towards the Suwanee River in order to reinforce Henry and to take out some bridges. Finnegan has his forces dig in near the town of Olustree.

At the same time, a small Union cavalry force raided Gainesville, southwest of Jacksonville.

20 February, 1864: Battle of Olustree: Seymour had received orders not to leave Barber’s Crossing, but decided to push on ahead with 5500 troops. Marching 18 miles from the crossing, the Confederates spot the three Federal columns and proceeded to attack. Seymour immediately ordered his forced into Line of Battle formation. Fierce fighting erupted as close as 250 yards. As the Federals were forming up their lines, the 7th NH, recently reinforced with recruits and draftees, broke and ran. This led to a general panic among the Union soldiers, with a few exceptions.

As the Federals were fleeing, Finnegan orders all of his troops at attack. Time was needed for the Federals to gat away. Two regiments, the 8th United States Colored Troops and the 54th MA, both African-American units, kept up a high volume of fire and risking certain death if captured. The Confederate had standing orders to enslave captured Black troops and execute the White officers commanding them. Knowing this, both units bought time for Seymour.

At dusk, Seymour orders his forces back to Barber’s Crossing.

The 8th USCT lost 300 of the 500 troops that they had at the start of the day. The 54th MA, already having been decimated at the Battle of Battery Wagner, Charleston, SC in July of 1863, further secured its honor with the blood of its members. This hammered at the prevailing attitude that Blacks would not make good soldiers, proving it wrong with each volley those two regiments sent.

Seymour would be reassigned to command a brigade in the Army of the Potomac. He was captured at the Battle of the Wilderness. Following a prisoner exchange in August, 1864, he serve in the Siege of Petersburg, VA and the Appomattox Campaign. He remained in the US Army until 1876 and moved to Florence, Italy, where he died in 1891.

Finnegan would be reassigned to the Army of Northern Virginia and given command of the Florida Brigade. He was soon ordered back to Florida. After the war, he was a state legislator and was in the cotton trade for a while. He died in 1885.

The main result of all this was that while the flow of supplies to the Confederate Army was curtailed, most of Florida would remain Confederate territory until the end of the war.

Mississippi, 1864

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Dates: 3 February to 6 March, 1864

Commanders:

Union: Major General William Sherman, commanding the Army of the Tennessee and Brigadier General William Sooey Smith, commanding the Cavalry Division of the Department of the Mississippi.

Confederate: Lieutenant General Leonidas Polk, commanding the Department of Alabama, Mississippi, and East Louisiana and Major General Nathan Bedford Forrest, command the cavalry corps in the same department.

Prelude: Sherman had devised a plan to destroy railroads and property in the Deep South, hampering an already dwindling capacity for the Confederacy to ship supplies and troops between the Western and Eastern theatres. It was also a goal of the Federals to seize Mobile, AL, one of the few remaining active ports available to the Confederacy. Another goal would have been to concentrate Federal striking power in order to advance deeper into the South, with Georgia as the target.

The Confederates, on the other hand, would like to delay, or even stop further Union advances into the region.

Sherman’s plan was to advance to Meridian, MS, and cut the Mobile and Ohio rail line. In the process, the Federals would capture and destroy as much material that could be of any use to the enemy. Meridian could also be used as a springboard to attack mobile. To that end, Sherman ordered Smith to meet him at Meridian.

3 February, 1864: Sherman and 20,000 soldiers leave Vicksburg, MS and head east to the state capital of Jackson.

Polk has about 20,000 available to him, but they are dispersed. It would take time to concentrate them. There is some fighting along the road to Jackson, but the Confederate defense does dot hold the Federals for very long.

5 February, 1864: Sherman enters Jackson and occupies the city for the third time in nine months.

Polk orders reinforcements from Mobile and then orders a defensive line built at Morton, on the rail line between Jackson and Meridian.

7 February, 1864: Sherman’s troops depart Jackson and head east for Meridian.

Meanwhile, Smith, who should have been raiding into Mississippi, has not even left Tennessee yet, due to floods that hampered him from concentrating his cavalry. This would put a damper in Sherman’s plans, although Sherman had no way of knowing yet.

8 February, 1864: As Sherman’s army continues their advance, Polk decides to withdraw to Meridian itself. The Union forces reach Morton.

However, the Confederates were not retreating without a fight, there is skirmishing alone the route of advance, especially at Decatur, hoping to slow Sherman down.

11 February, 1864: Smith finally leaves Memphis and heads south into Mississippi, a week later than planned.

14 February, 1864: Polk sees that he can not hold back Sherman and orders his troops to withdraw. They head into Alabama, not stopping until reaching Demopolis.

Polk is effectively out of the fight.

Later that day, Sherman’s forces arrive at Meridian. He orders the destruction of the rail station as well as hotels, hospitals, warehouses and all other property that the Confederates could still use. Then he orders his army to make camp while he waits for Smith to arrive.

16 February, 1864: Smith’s cavalry crosses the Tallahatchie River, heading southeast for Okolona. There is some skirmishing, but no serious Confederate resistance. Smith turns south on the road that would take him to Meridian.

Meanwhile, in Meridian, Sherman had deployed 10,000 as a blocking force in case Polk decides to do anything, while the rest of his army tore up some railroads. Still there is no sign of Smith and the cavalry.

20 February, 1864: Sherman decides that he can no longer wait for Smith to arrive and orders his army to march back to Vicksburg. Any further advance east would have to wait for now.

21 February, 1864: Smith’s cavalry reaches West Point, where they find Forrest’s cavalry dug in. Smith orders an assault, which drives the Confederates through the town itself, then something extraordinary happened. Smith loses his nerve, thinking that the Confederates were there in overwhelming numbers. Actually, he was facing part of one regiment and Forrest’s escort. Smith orders a withdrawal back to Okolona. Forrest orders his troopers to join him and begin a pursuit of the Federals.

22 February, 1864: As Sherman’s army march to the west, he orders his small detachment of cavalry, under Colonel Edward Winslow, to ride north and find out where Smith was.

At the same time, Smith was fighting a rearguard action against Forrest, who has all of his cavalry, about 2500, in hot pursuit. Despite valiant action be units such as the 4th MO Cavalry, Forrest could not be held back and Smith begins a retreat back to Memphis, losing some of his cannon in the process.

25 February, 1864: Winslow rejoins Sherman at Canton, near Vicksburg, and reports that he failed to locate Smith.

26 February, 1864: Sherman’s army arrives back at Vicksburg.

27 February, 1864: Smith’s cavalry arrives back at Memphis.

Smith would resign his commission on 15 July, 1864, citing ill health and returned to his pre-war occupation of engineering.

Sherman would have to go back to the drawing board.

During this time there was another operation worth mentioning.

1 February, 1864: An expedition under the command of Colonel J.H. Coates departs Vicksburg and heads north up the Yazoo River to Yazoo City.

5 March, 1864: Confederate troops, under the command of Brigadier General Lawrence Ross engage Coates’ forces near Yazoo Coty.

6 March, 1864: Coates orders hit troops back to Vicksburg.

The Federals are held for now, but that is only a temporary situation.

Virginia, 1863

2007-05-22T12:23:00.000-06:00

Dates: 9 October to 26 November, 1863

Commanders:

Union: Major General George Meade commanding the Army of the Potomac.

Confederate: General Robert E. Lee commanding the Army of Northern Virginia.

Prelude: Since the Battle of Gettysburg, back in July, both the Army of the Potomac and the Army of Northern Virginia had not been doing much more than skirmishing along the Rapidan River. Each commander had been looking for some type of advantage that could be exploited.

Lee was hampered by the reassignment of Lieutenant General James Longstreet and his corps to General Braxton Bragg’s Army of Tennessee, presently defending Chattanooga, TN.

On the other hand, Meade had sent two of his own corps to the same theatre of operations.

Lee decided to strike.

10 October, 1863: Lee sends his forces around Meade’s right flank, crossing the Rapidan and driving the Federals back.

12 October, 1863: A Confederate division, under Lieutenant General Richard Ewell, crosses the Rappahannock River at Fauquier White Sulphur Springs, and advances toward the northeast. The axis of Lee’s advance is Manassas junction, scene of two previous battles.

Meade continues to pull back but there is some fight in them.

13 October, 1863: Battle of Auburn: Lee sent his cavalry, under Major General J.E.B. Stuart ahead to scout the best routes for advance and to give support to Ewell. At Auburn, the cavalry was cut off and surrounded, forcing Stuart to force his way out of the area in order to avoid capture.

14 October, 1863: Battle of Bristoe Station: Another Confederate corps, commanded by Lieutenant General A.P. Hill saw an opportunity to cut off Major General George Sykes V Corps as well as capture a station on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. Hill launched his assault with the aim of splitting the Federal line. As the attack was in progress, out of a railroad cut appeared Major General Gouverneur Warren’s II Corps. Warren proceeds to send a heavy fire into Hill, forcing the Confederates to pull back. For his efforts, Hill lost 1200 soldiers while inflicting 380 causalities on the Union forces.

15 October, 1863: Meade finds a good defensive line and completes his retreat. Lee, finding the Federals in strong positions, decided to pull back himself, ordering the railroad torn up in the process in order to dent the Federals its further use.

20 October, 1863: As the Army of Northern Virginia heads back across the Rappahannock, Stuart took an opportunity to ambush some Federal cavalry near Buckland. The Union troopers fled and the resulting chase became known as “The Buckland Races.”

Meade decided to pursue Lee, hoping for e decisive strike on the Confederate forces.

7 November, 1863: Meade went on the offensive and hit Lee in two places:

Battle of Kelly’s Ford: III Corps, under Major General Samuel French, forced their way across the Rappahannock using a pontoon bridge. This results in the capture of two Confederate regiments and driving off the rest.

Battle of Rappahannock Station: Southwest of Kelly’s Ford, V and VI Corps make a frontal assault on Major General Jubal Early’s division, forcing them across the Rappahannock and capturing two of the Confederate brigades.

Lee pulled his army back from the Rappahannock and found a good defensive position between there and the Rapidan. Meade begins a series of probes in the area as snow began to fall. It would soon be time for go into winter encampment, so if Meade wanted to strike a blow on Lee, it needed to be done soon.

27 November, 1863: Battle of Mine Run: Lee established a defensive line along a stream called Mine Run. Meade was probing for a way to bypass Lee and maybe strike at the Confederate capital of Richmond. At Payne’s Farm, the two meet. Meade attempts to punch his way though the Confederates before Lee could concentrate his army. The next day, a way is found around the Confederate’s left flank that could be turned to the Federals advantage. An assault is planned for 30 November, but is cancelled before it began when Lee reinforced the area.

1 December, 1863: Meade orders his army back across the Rappahannock and into winter quarters. Lee orders the same as soon as the Federal threat has gone.

This campaign did little to accomplish anything. Lee tried to push the Army of the Potomac at least past Manassas, but was not able to do so. Meade saw a chance to push for Richmond, but still saw Lee as too strong to push aside.

Both armies were in camps for the winter, it would be spring before anyone would take the offensive in Virginia.

Knoxville, TN, 1863

2007-05-22T12:22:00.000-06:00

Dates: 2 September to 4 December, 1863

Commanders:

Union: Major General Ambrose Burnside, commanding the Department of the Ohio.

Confederate: General Braxton Bragg, commanding the Army of Tennessee, and Lieutenant General James Longstreet, on temporary assignment from the Army of Northern Virginia and commanding a corps in the Army of Tennessee.

Prelude: At this time, Bragg is holding the city of Chattanooga, TN from a determined Federal advance. While one Federal army is keeping Bragg occupied, there is another one out there. Burnside commands another army in his capacity as commander of the Department of the Ohio. His objective is the mountainous region of East Tennessee, with its mountain passes and a major rail line linking Chattanooga and the East. The region was garrisoned by troops under Major General Simon Bolivar Buckner, the officer who was left holding the bag at Fort Donelson. The area itself was actually a hotbed of Unionist sympathizers. The area became an objective that the Union had to accomplish in order to secure Tennessee.

16 August, 1863: Burnside departs Lexington, KY as part of a two prong movement toward Chattanooga. His first objective is the rail junction at Knoxville.

At the same time, Major General William Rosecrans and his Army of the Cumberland was advancing on Chattanooga, reaching the Tennessee River west of the city on 21 August.

Bragg, in Chattanooga, orders Buckner to come to his aid with all the troops he could gather. Buckner obeys, stripping the garrison. Knoxville was open for the taking.

2 September, 1863: Burnside enters Knoxville virtually unopposed. This action severs another east-west rail connection for the Confederacy, mainly the direct line from Chattanooga to Virginia, used for moving troops and supplies. This also gives Burnside a base in which he could mount operations throughout East Tennessee.

Burnside now sits in a position that could not be ignored. However, Bragg had other things to think about; he believes that he will be attacked from up river, but Rosecrans is coming in from the west. Bragg had a plan to put himself between Rosecrans and Chattanooga, but Rosecrans guessed his intentions and outmaneuvered Bragg. Bragg orders Chattanooga evacuated on 6 September, with Rosecrans following. Bragg’s quick turnaround on Northern Georgia would result in the Battle of Chickamauga, which resulted in Rosecrans being driven back to Chattanooga and ending up under siege.

Burnside was not idle while all this was going on.
9 September, 1863: Burnside sends troops north to Cumberland Gap, where they quickly force the surrender of the Confederate garrison there.

Buoyed by that success, and the timely arrival of two corps assigned to him, Burnside sends other detachments throughout East Tennessee, securing an area from Loudon in the west to Jonesboro in the east. This situation could no longer be afforded to be ignored by Bragg.

Now secure in his siege lines, Bragg assigns Longstreet the task of driving Burnside out of the area and secure the rail link to Virginia.

4 November, 1863: Longstreet’s corps and cavalry under Brigadier General Joseph Wheeler depart Chattanooga and head for Knoxville.

Bragg believes that Longstreet was attached to his command for the purpose of replacing him. He was very unpopular amongst his senior commanders, whom he blamed every time there was a defeat. The only thing keeping him in command was that he was friends with CS President Jefferson Davis. Soon, Bragg would be heavily occupied with other things as Federal troops were assembling for the operation that would lift the siege.

Longstreet moved his troops north through Cleveland, Charleston, Calhoun, and Athens, where his column splits. One group marched to Sweetwater, then Philadelphia, and finally Loudon. The other group marched to Maryville, where they had a straight route north to Knoxville.

6 November, 1863: Burnside is informed of Longstreet’s movements and orders his forces into defensive positions around Knoxville. This maneuver will be completed on 18 November.

Knoxville sits on the north bank of the Holston River with wooded areas around the rest of the city. Burnside was able to anchor his lines on the river. He also had the advantage of Fort Sanders, on the west side of the lines, as a strongpoint. With enough supplies and river access, Burnside could wait.

18 November, 1863: As Burnside sets his defense lines around Knoxville, Longstreet arrives. He tried to at least cut off the Federal rear guard, but failed.

The first thing Longstreet considered was a siege, but he did not have the heavy artillery needed for battering down defensive ramparts. He also did not have the numbers needed for such a siege. Longstreet sent word to Bragg requesting reinforcements and waited a week before realizing that they were not coming. Finally, he decides on a frontal assault.

29 November, 1863: Battle of Knoxville: Longstreet launches his assault in Fort Sanders, hoping to break the Union line and use the fort to cover other attacks on the line. He sends his two divisions, under Major Generals Lafayette McLaws and Albert Jenkins. The fort itself holds 400 Federals, four 20-pound Parrotts, six Napoleons, and two 3-inch Ordnance Rifles, a lot of artillery to defend the area around the fort.

As the Confederates came in with bayonets fixed, they are entangled in the obstacles that Burnside ordered placed there in order to slow down the charge, allowing rifle and cannon fire to decimate Longstreet’s forces.

Three color bearers, from the 13th and 17th MS and the 16th GA, managed to plant their flags on top on the fort’s walls, but are soon killed. Longstreet realizes that there was no further point to the attack and ordered a pull back.

The Confederates lost 813 in the attack, while the Federals only lost 100.

Longstreet decided to wait and see if those reinforcement would arrive. Sadly for him, two complications came up; Bragg was defeated at the Battle of Missionary Ridge and was marching into Georgia. This allowed the commander of Union forces in the west, Major General Ulysses S. Grant, to send an army, this one under Major General William Sherman, to relieve Burnside. Seeing what was coming, Longstreet decided that the best thing to do was to pull out entirely.

4 December, 1863: Longstreet pulls out of the Knoxville area and heads southeast. Federal troops begin a pursuit. The Confederates march to Rogersville, where they rest before attacking a Union cavalry detachment near Bean’s Station on 14 December, forcing a Federal withdrawal.

Afterwards, Longstreet orders his troops into winter quarters.

Burnside would be relieved of command, at his request, after Sherman’s army arrived at Knoxville.

Bragg tried to gat all of his senior commanders fired, but it is he who will soon be relieved of his army.

Longstreet would be reunited with the Army of Northern Virginia in time for the Union’s Overland Campaign in Spring, 1864.

Iuka, MS

2007-05-21T14:07:00.000-06:00

Date: 19 September, 1862

Commanders:

Union: Major General William Rosecrans, commanding the Army of the Mississippi.

Confederate: Major General Sterling Price, commanding the Army of the West.

Prelude: This was an opportunity for the Confederates to gain some ground while everyone was occupied with General Braxton Bragg’s Kentucky invasion. The hope here was that a better defense against the Union advance could be maintained. If the Federals could be stopped, then a counteroffensive could be launched into Tennessee, and maybe even Western Kentucky.

14 September, 1862: Price takes 14000 and seizes Iuka.

The sudden appearance of a Confederate force that could cause trouble forced Major General Ulysses S. Grant to change some of his plans. He was planning to send reinforcements to assist Major General Don Carlos Buell’s efforts against Bragg. Instead, Grant devises a plan to take Price out. The army would be split in two; one group, led by Rosecrans, would swing south, and then head north east to strike Iuka. Grant would come from the north and northwest. This would place Price in a vise.

Iuka itself sits on a rail line 30 miles east of the town of Corinth, already in Union hands since 30 May. Federal possession of the rail line could help in operations into Alabama and beyond. Another advantage for the Federals would be that no other Confederate operations would interfere with future Union operations along the Mississippi River, especially the future campaign against Vicksburg.

19 September, 1862: In the afternoon, Rosecrans begins his approach to Iuka. At about 2:30 p.m., Confederate scouts spot the Union forces and quickly gets a message to Price. He orders the division of Brigadier General Lewis Henry Little to deploy and engage Rosecrans.

Little places his three brigades in a line southwest of the town, with artillery covering his flanks. Rosecrans places his two divisions in a line to meet Little, with heavy artillery support and cavalry covering the Union right flank. The artillery pounds the approaching Confederates.

4:00 p.m.: The center Confederate division launches an assault on the Union center, which was supported by a forward artillery battery. A seesaw battle over the possession of the battery ensues.

5:00 p.m.: A second Confederate brigade launches an assault on the Federal left, collapsing it and allowing the Federal battery to be seized. During this action Little is killed.

6:00 p.m.: The Federal left rallies and counterattacks, recapturing the battery. Until darkness falls, the battery changes hands several times.

As darkness falls, the fighting ends. At this point, Price receives word of the second Federal force coming from the north. He orders an immediate withdraw to the south, which is accomplished during the night.

20 September, 1862: Rosecrans orders an assault into Iuka, only to find the Confederates left during the night. A pursuit is ordered.

Price had marched south to the town of Baldwyn, where he receives a message from the new Confederate commander in Mississippi and East Louisiana, Lieutenant General Earl Van Dorn, ordering him to Ripley, where they will plan the next phase.

Iuka cost Price 535 causalities, mostly in Little’s brigade. Rosecrans lost 790.

Corinth, MS

2007-05-21T14:06:00.000-06:00

Dates: 3-4 October, 1862

Commanders:

Union: Major General William Rosecrans, commanding the Army of the Mississippi.

Confederate: Lieutenant General Earl Van Dorn, commanding the Confederate Military District of Mississippi and East Louisiana.

Prelude: Van Dorn had arrived at Ripley as commander of the district. He was appointed to the position by CS President Jefferson Davis without consulting General Braxton Bragg, presently attempting an invasion of Kentucky.

Van Dorn sent a message to Major General Sterling Price, at the time marching from Iuka, MS, to join him at Ripley. Price’s troops would be needed for a new offensive, this time against the Union forces at Corinth. Possession of the rail cross roads would possibly cause the Federals to loosen their grip on Northern Mississippi and even Western Tennessee. If Van Dorn loses, however, central Mississippi would be open for Federal invasion.

28 September, 1862: Van Dorn’s and Price’s forces unite at Ripley, where Van Dorn takes overall command. The combined army of 20,000 men begins to march north until they cross the line into Tennessee. Then they turn east and stop at Chewalla, on the Memphis and Charleston Railroad about 15 miles from Corinth. The Confederates arrive at Chewalla on 2 October.

Meanwhile, upon hearing of the Confederate’s movements, Major General Ulysses S. Grant decides to move some of his troops to Jackson, TN to protect the rail junction. Rosecrans was ordered to keep Corinth secure with 23,000 soldiers.

3 October, 1862: Dawn: Van Dorn approaches from the northwest and begins skirmishing with the Federal picket line. The Union troops fall back across Cane Creek to the Union defensive.

Rosecrans had established a series of redoubts to the west and north of Corinth, it seems that Van Dorn’s maneuver was anticipated. Still the Confederates were determined to crack those defenses.

Noon: Van Dorn sends two divisions, under Price to hit the Union right flank. This results in the Federal line collapsing towards Corinth. A secondary line is prepared to meet the attacking Confederates.

1:30 p.m.: As the Confederate attack pressed forward, the Federals were driven back, but were able to inflict heavy causalities as they retreated. The battle soon became a series of seesaw actions in which positions were taken and retaken.

3:00 p.m.: Rosecrans orders one of his divisions to counterattack, but Major General Charles Hamilton, commanding that division failed to take advantage of a suddenly exposed Confederate flank and withdrew into the inner defenses. He blamed vague orders.

5:00 p.m.: Despite the rest of the Federal line holding off the rest of the Confederate assault, they retire into the inner defenses before sundown. Artillery was used to keep Van Dorn at bay until the Federals were repositioned. Fighting stopped at sundown.

4 October, 1862: Dawn: Van Dorn orders a massive artillery barrage to soften up the Federal defensive line prior to launching another attack. Federal batteries respond with counterbattery fire which suppresses the Confederate guns.

10:00 a.m.: After a delay, Van Dorn launches his assault. In the center, the focal point became Battery Robinette, an artillery redoubt supported by infantry. Over the next several hours, that point was assaulted multiple times, with no success and heavy causalities among the Confederates.

Meanwhile, another Confederate advance managed to penetrate into Corinth itself. Alerted to this development, Batteries Robinette and Williams, located to the south of Robinette, began to pour fire into the Confederate brigades in Corinth, shredding then and forcing a withdrawal.

Into the afternoon, the fighting became fierce, with hand-to-hand combat throughout the lines. The Confederates, in the form of a brigade of Texans, were about to punch through when a brigade of Ohio troops revealed themselves and sent no fewer than seven volleys into the Texans, decimating them.

In the end, Van Dorn’s troops were repulsed from Corinth. Exhausted and no longer able to go on the offensive, Van Dorn orders a withdrawal to the Hatchie River. Rosecrans orders a pursuit, aided by a division that Grant sent when he received the initial reports of the fighting at Corinth.

The Battle of Corinth cost Van Dorn 4838 in total causalities, while the Union lost 2359.

Van Dorn learns of the second Federal force and decides to go back the way he came, but the Federals were not through with him yet.

7 October, 1862: Grant and Rosecrans catch up to Van Dorn at Davis’ Bridge, on the Hatchie River. A force sent across the river was repulsed and the Union forces captured the bridge, forcing Van Dorn to withdraw all the way to Holly Springs, AR.

The elimination of Van Dorn’s army would cause problems for Bragg, whose army was now in a position to be cut off. This would contribute to his withdrawal from Kentucky, especially when Rosecrans was free to support Buell.

In the end, the Confederate offensive only resulted in the loss of troops that the Confederacy already could not afford to lose, while it only delayed Union victory in the Mississippi Valley.

Price's Missouri Raid, 1864

2007-05-21T14:05:00.000-06:00

Dates: 19 September to 1 November, 1864.

Commanders:

Union: Major General Samuel Curtis, commanding Union forces in Missouri.

Confederate: Major General Sterling Price, commanding the Army of Missouri.

Prelude: At this point in time, the fortunes for the CSA were getting grimmer by the day. All throughout the South, the various armies of the Confederacy were being ground down by either siege or by battles that lessened the ability of the Confederates to even wage defensive warfare.

It did not mean that the CSA was through, yet.

In the hope that the union’s resolve could be cracked at this late date, Price, onetime commander of the Missouri State Guards who was thrown out of the state in 1861, wanted one last chance to bring Missouri into the Confederate fold. Perhaps the sudden loss of the state would wreck the Union march to victory. To this end, Price gathered a force of 12,000 troops, mostly mounted infantry and cavalry. Hopefully this force was enough to seize the state capital of Jefferson City.

19 September, 1864: Price departs Pocahontas, AR and quickly enters Missouri. They begin this operation with a minimum of supplies, hoping to use the rich farms as a food source. Another factor to consider was that 1/3 of the troops were not even armed, hoping to get then from seized arsenals or dead Federals.

20 September, 1864: The sight of several thousand rag-tag Confederates was enough for the town to Keytesville to surrender.

Price intended to seize St Louis, but received intelligence that the city would be heavily defended, so he decided to go for Jefferson City.

24 September, 1864: Fayette falls to Price’s forces.

26 September, 1862: Price reaches Ironton after several brief engagements.

Just beyond the town was Fort Davidson, guarding the road to Pilot Knob. Commanded by Brigadier General Thomas Ewing Jr., the fort held 1051 troops and 11 cannon. Price decided that this fort had to be reduced.

27 September, 1864: Battle of Pilot Knob: Price formed his three brigades in a line and advanced from the south. Several assaults were made, but the fort’s walls were not breached. Price had lost about 1200 in the process. Ewing knew that he could not hold out for very long; he ordered the fort evacuated. As the Federals left, the magazine was blown up, denying Price any munitions.

28 September, 1864: As Ewing’s men head off, Price’s men are in pursuit.

As Price continued his advance, there were a series of skirmishes and minor actions, with places such as Leesburg, Cuba, Washington, and Herman and Miller’s Station becoming battlefields that don’t make it to most Civil War histories, but are no less important.

6 October, 1864: Price and his army approach Jefferson City. The Union garrison prepares to meet them.

7 October, 1864: There is a brief skirmish south of Jefferson City involving Federal cavalry. The cavalry were driven back, but the action revealed that the remaining Federal defenses of the city were too strong for Price to crack. He decodes to bypass Jefferson City and head for Kansas City.

8 October, 1864: Price swings past Jefferson City and heads for Booneville, on the Missouri River. After taking the town the next day, he splits his forces in two, sending one to Glasgow and the other to Sedalia.

15 October, 1864: Both Glasgow and Sedalia are attacked and captured.

The Union, at this point, prepare a reception for Price and his army short of Kansas City. Curtis has placed his forces west of Lexington, Price’s next target. Major General Alfred Pleasonton with cavalry was coming in from the east, while Major General A. J. Smith has some infantry to the south.

20 October, 1864: A small volunteer Union force engages Price near Lexington, before falling back to the Little Blue River.

21 October, 1864: Price attacks and defeats a Union force commanded by Major General James Blunt on the Little Blue River, forcing them to the Big Blue River, near Westport.

The withdrawing Federals were drawing Price to a spot of their own choosing. The Confederates were kept busy with strikes on their rear, while Price planned to punch through to Kansas City as Lexington fell to the Confederates. Price decided to press on to Westport.

The main factor affecting Price was numbers; his force was down to 8500, while Curtis was fielding a total of 20,000. He did not think that would be a problem.

23 October, 1864: Battle of Westport: Price decided first to deal with Pleasonton first. He orders his troops to hit the Federal line at Brush Creek, south of Westport. At first the Federals were forced across the creek, but were able to rally and counterattack, resulting in fierce fighting for several hours. Meanwhile, Pleasonton’s cavalry strikes from the east, taking Bryam’s Ford and capturing Brigadier General John Marmaduke in the process. With Federal troops pressing on the flanks and approaching the rear, Price had no choice but to abandon the drive for Kansas City and head south. Pleasonton’s troopers are in pursuit.

25 October, 1864: Price had crossed into Kansas and had headed for a crossing on the Marias des Cygnes River. Pleasonton caught up with him and captured the remaining Confederate cannon. Prices orders his wagons burned and it practically became every one for themselves. Price managed to restore order and forced marched his troops to Carthage.

1 November, 1864: Price and his remaining troops reach Cane Hill, AR, effectively ending the raid.

All this raid did was delay the inevitable victory of the Union in the West, however that was assured anyway. This raid, in the long run, turned out to be no more than a last gasp for the Confederates. There would be no more Confederate offensives in Missouri, or the Trans-Mississippi.

Invasion! Kentucky!

2007-05-15T13:06:00.001-06:00

Dates: 14 August to 9 October, 1862

Commanders:

Union: Major General Don Carlos Buell, commanding the Army of the Ohio.

Confederate: Major Generals Edmund Kirby Smith and Braxton Bragg. Bragg commands the Army of Mississippi, Smith commands the Department of East Tennessee.

Prelude: There was more than one factor that finally stopped Buell from taking Chattanooga. He was already stopped by the twin raids of Colonels Nathan Bedford Forrest and John Hunt Morgan. However, Buell was not quite ready to abandon the operation just yet. The confederates had other ideas.

Bragg had been ordered to get his army to Chattanooga as part of a plan to knock Buell out of the way and lift any further threat to the city. Smith, as commander of the district of East Tennessee, had managed to get a small army together to invade Kentucky and bring that state into the Confederacy. With both his and Bragg’s troops, the hope was to draw Buell away and engage him in an area of their own choosing. Smith will have 10,000 troops with him, Bragg will bring 30,000.

14 August, 1862: Smith departs Knoxville and heads north towards Cumberland Gap, on the Tennessee border. Instead of driving for the gap, he orders his forces to bypass it to the west. This causes the Union garrison to flee the area.

28 August, 1862: Bragg departs Chattanooga and heads north, marching through the area of Forrest’s recent raid as first Sparta, then Carthage is reached. Turning north, they cross into Kentucky with the aim of severing the Federal supply lines.

30 August, 1862; Buell might have had the chance to take advantage of the situation and take Chattanooga. Perhaps he was thinking that Bragg could come back and lay siege to the city if the Union was holding there. Buell orders his army to pursue Bragg.

At Richmond, KY, Smith attacks a Union garrison, driving them off and opening the way for the Confederates to occupy Lexington.

As Buell heads to Kentucky, he leaves a garrison at Nashville in order to keep the city in Union hands.

2 September, 1862: Lexington, KY is in Confederate hands. The Kentucky State Legislature flees to Louisville.

For the next several days, the armies spent their time maneuvering, not bringing on any major engagements. The Confederates were creating a 60-mile front while Buell was playing catch-up.

15 September, 1862: Bragg’s army is fully in Kentucky as they reach Glasgow. After camping for the night, they continue north.

17 September, 1862: Bragg’s forces reach Munfordsville, where they force the small Union garrison to surrender.

Bragg continues marching north, making Buell think that the Confederates intended to take Louisville. The Federals respond by planning to concentrate their forces there. However, Bragg turns to the east, intending to link up with Smith’s force.

22 September, 1862: Bragg’s army reaches Bardstown. This clears the way for Buell to get between the Confederates and Louisville.

26 September, 1862: Bragg issues a proclamation, calling for the states of the Northwest to side with the Confederacy. This falls on deaf ears.

29 September, 1862: Buell reaches Louisville and concentrates his army there. Smith takes two divisions and makes a feint around Frankfort, drawing part of Buell’s troops their way.

Because there was now easy access to the Ohio River, Buell was able to resupply and reequip his troops so they can finally take the offensive.

1 October, 1862: Buell begins advancing from Louisville, throwing a feint towards Frankfort.

Bragg and Smith, their forces nearly combined, decide to detach half of their troops to defend Frankfort, while sending a division, under Major General William Hardee to Perryville. The remainder of Bragg’s forces went to Haroldsville, to the northeast.

7 October, 1862: As Buell’s main force approaches Perryville, they meet Hardee’s line, resulting in massive skirmishing. Hardee sends a massage to Bragg, who sends the division of Major General Leonidas Polk to reinforce against what was perceived was a part of Buell’s army.

What they ended up facing was a major part of the Union force.

8 October, 1862: Battle of Perryville: Bragg placed his two divisions to the northwest of the town, with Polk to the north and Hardee to the south. Buell is bringing in three corps. He placed his I Corps (Major General Alexander McCook) on the left flank, III Corps (Major General Charles Gilbert) holding the middle, and II Corps (Major General Thomas Crittenden) on the right.
Dawn: Buell sends his left wing forward in a attempt to outflank the Confederate line. One of the divisions going forward is led by Brigadier General Philip Sheridan. They get halfway to the town, past the Turner House, then stops to dig in.

10:00 a.m.: Having been alerted to the action at Perryville, Bragg rushes there and takes command of the situation. He orders two brigades to attack the Federal left flank.

2:00 p.m.: Polk sends in his brigades against McCook, pushing him back and collapsing the Union line. Just as the Federal were about to be out flanked one division of veterans holds the line and stops the Confederate attack. Sheridan was in a position to assist but was ordered not to move.

To the south, Crittenden was plagued by Confederate cavalry under Brigadier General Joseph Wheeler and was not engaged in the general battle.

4: 15 p.m.: One Confederate brigade is sent to attack Sheridan at Turner House. Sheridan was able to repulse that attack and then take the offensive. As the sun begins to set, the Federals push into Perryville itself. That evening, while in the town, they find themselves with no support and have to withdraw. Around the same time Buell, who has been hearing artillery all day, finally realizes that a major battle is underway. He sends the bulk of his army to the area.

The Confederates were able to push the Federals back until darkness brought an end to the fighting. When they saw that Buell was bringing up extra troops, Bragg orders his troops to pull back to Harrodsburg.

In what turned out to be the only major battle fought in Kentucky, the Federals lost 4349 in killed, wounded, and missing, mostly from McCook’s corps. The Confederates lost 3386.

9 October, 1862: Bragg pulls away from Perryville and joins up with Smith at Harrodsburg. There it was decided to pull out of Kentucky entirely.

It was not a total loss; there was a treasure haul of supplies that would sustain the Confederates through the winter.

Smith would soon be transferred to the Trans-Mississippi region where he will spend the rest of the war. His army would be the last major Confederate army to surrender in 1865.

Bragg would take the remainder of his army to Murfreesboro, where another battle awaited him.

Buell did not pursue Bragg or Smith and was relieved of command of the Army of the Ohio, 24 October, 1862, as a result. He went to his home in Indianapolis, IN to await orders that never came.

The capture of Chattanooga would wait until next year.

Kentucky was secure.

Forrest's and Morgan's Kentucky and Tennessee Raids, 1862

2007-05-15T10:18:00.000-06:00

Dates: 4-27 July, 1862

Commanders:

Union: Major General Don Carlos Buell, command the Army of the Ohio.

Confederate: Colonels John Hunt Morgan and Nathan Bedford Forrest.

Prelude: At this point in the war in Tennessee, the Federals were making inroads into the state. There was an offensive to take the Mississippi River at the west end of the state, while another offensive, led by Buell, was aimed at taking Chattanooga. While the Confederate Army in the West tried to stem the tide on the river, it was decided to see how Buell could be tied up. There were no other organized armies in the area, however, there was cavalry that could be used. Two bodies of cavalry were available, under commanders who were proving in the early stages of the war to be both bold and capable.

Forrest did not have any military experience. He actually was a plantation owner who also did business as a slave trader. When the Civil War broke out, the Tennessee native enlisted as a private in a local cavalry outfit. He soon organized and outfitted (at his own expense) his own unit, becoming its colonel. Forrest displayed his independent streak by taking his command out of Fort Donelson the night before its surrender.

Morgan did have some military experience, with service in the Mexican War. Pre-Civil War, he was a merchant who sided with the South, even though his state of Kentucky never seceded.

Both would prove a pain in the side to the Federals.

4 July, 1862: Morgan departs Knoxville, TN on his raid.

The 2nd KY Cavalry, with 876 troopers, heads west to Crossville, then to Sparta, where they turn north. They are joined by Georgians, Texans, and Tennesseans. Over the next few days, they ride on to Cookville, then head northwest to Celina, finally crossing the line into Kentucky.

9 July, 1862: Forrest departs Chattanooga with 1400 troopers, heading northwest to McMinnville. He will spend a few days there.

On that same day, Morgan’s force surprises, then drives off, a Union cavalry detachment at Tomkinsville.

Morgan has plans for information gathering. The Federals had the area wired for telegraph communication. Among his troopers was a telegrapher who was able to tap into Union lines and monitor their communications. This would keep Morgan away from any traps.
Morgan’s troopers then headed north to Glasgow, then Horse Cove, on the Louisville and Kentucky Railroad. Afterwards, they cut east, then north, heading towards Lebanon.

11-12 July, 1862: Morgan’s raiders strike Lebanon, driving off its garrison of 100 and seizing a large number of supplies. The supplies would be needed for troopers living in the saddle.

13 July, 1862: Meanwhile, Forrest was not idle; his troops ride past Woodbury, then turned west to hit a Union garrison of 1040 commanded by Brigadier General Thomas Crittenden at Murfreesboro. They were able to capture the garrison and free some hostages being held there. Afterwards, they rode back to McMinnville.

Now these Union troops who were taken prisoner could not be taken with the raiders. There were not enough horses, nor troopers who could be spared. Both Morgan and Forrest took the parole of their captives, keeping them out of the fight until an equal number of Confederates that were being held prisoner were released.

Morgan had the intention to take Lexington, but the growing number of defending Federals prevented this. Instead, Morgan continues northeast.

17 July, 1862: Morgan’s troops reach Cynthiana, surrounding and then capturing the town after a fierce battle, losing eight killed and 28 wounded to the Federals 17 killed and 34 wounded.

Morgan decides that this is enough, he decides to head back to Tennessee. His troopers first go north to Clarksville, then turn south, riding to Paris, Winchester, Richmond, Crab Orchard, Somerset, and Monticello before crossing back into Tennessee. He finally stops at Livingston, completing his raid, on or about 22 July.

Forrest was also ready to create some more havoc.

18 July, 1862: Forrest leaves McMinnville with 700 men and proceeds to raid the countryside. They head north to Smithville, but then heads west to Liberty. Passing Liberty, they then head for Lebanon (this one in Tennessee), where there was a Federal garrison.

20 July, 1862: At Lebanon, the sight of hundreds of screaming Confederate cavalry troops shocked the small Federal garrison, causing then to run for their lives towards Nashville, Forrest follows.

21 July, 1862: Forrest’s troops strike the Union picket line near Nashville. They ride through the area south of the city, tearing up bridges, rail lines, and telegraph lines. Not wanting to force a major engagement with a major Union garrison, Forrest heads south.

The Federals send out a detachment to try to stop Forrest, but he manages to keep away from any more engagements. The Union troops begin guarding rail lines in order to keep Forrest away.

27 July, 1862: Forrest attacks a Union detachment guarding the rail line between Murfreesboro and McMinnville, killing three and taking 15 prisoners. Forrest then returns to McMinnville, where the operation comes to an end.

Morgan traveled 1000 miles, captured or destroyed millions of dollars of supplies, and captured 1200 Federal soldiers, all for a loss of 90.

Forrest did not travel as far as that, but his effect was no less spectacular.

12 August, 1862: To put an exclamation point on his operations, Morgan destroyed the tunnel on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, severing Buell’s supply line and putting Chattanooga out of reach for the time being.

The Union offensive in Eastern Tennessee was stopped.

The Confederates were ready to defend their territory with any means necessary.

Morgan would make his famous raid into Indiana and Ohio the next year.

Forrest would go on to various cavalry commands, both with the Army of Tennessee as well as independent commands. He would be a fixture in the Deep South for quite a while yet.

Mississippi River and New Orleans

2007-05-14T13:01:00.000-06:00

Dates: 3 March to 24 July, 1862

Commanders:

Union: Major General Henry W. Halleck, commanding Federal armies in the West. Major General Benjamin F. Butler, commanding Union infantry in the assault on New Orleans, and Captain David Farragut, commanding Union naval forces on board USS Hartford.

Confederate: General P.G.T. Beauregard, commanding Confederate forces in the West.

Prelude: Following the Union victories at Forts Henry and Donelson, the momentum seemed to be on the Federal’s side. Plans were being made for further operations along the Mississippi River, the main trade artery that was as essential to the Confederacy as the ports that were coming under blockade. The plan was to send armies down the Mississippi and seize forts and other strategic points at least as far south as Memphis. Another planned target was the city of New Orleans, a major Confederate port at the time. The aim was to take the entire rive and split the CSA in two, making it harder for the Confederates to get troops and supplies from west to east.

As with most plans, there was a complication. Halleck, in his capacity as commander of Union forces in the West, had sent telegrams to Washington D.C. that were not complimentary of the general who took Forts Henry and Donelson, Major General Ulysses S. Grant. Halleck was jealous of Grant’s rising star status and wanted to knock away a potential rival. Halleck started spinning a tale that had Grant as inefficient and drunk while commanding the campaign. The Chief of the Union Armies, Major General George McClellan, gave permission to Halleck to remove Grant. That way, Halleck would gain glory and promotion for himself.

3 March, 1862: Halleck receives permission from McClellan to remove Grant from command. At the same time, Halleck orders a force of 18,000 under Major General John Pope down the river. First target, New Madrid, MO and a Confederate battery on a sandbar known as Island No. 10.

4 March, 1862: Major General Charles Smith is given command of Grant’s troops while Grant is reassigned as Halleck’s second-in-command, with no duties.

5 March, 1862: To counter the growing Union threat, Beauregard is formally assigned as commander in the West, with orders to stop the Federal advance.

In Savannah, TN, Smith’s troops are joined by gunboats and transports

Pope marches his army through eastern Missouri. He is supported by naval forces under Flag Officer Andrew Foote which consisted of gunboats and mortar boats for heavy bombardment.

14 March 1862: Pope captures New Madrid.

Island No. 10 sat in a bend in the Mississippi River along the Kentucky-Tennessee border. This position afforded cover to both up and down river traffic. Union possession of this island would go greatly towards total possession of the river. (The reason that the term “sat” is used is because this island no longer exists.)

15 March, 1862: Grant is restored to command on Union forces still at Savannah, TN.

18 March, 1862: Another Confederate army, under General Albert S. Johnston, is sent west to reinforce Beauregard. Because of seniority, Johnston will be overall commander.

Johnston’s plan was to keep the area’s railroads out of Federal hands. He is also covering Major General Don Carlos Buell’s forces, who are around Chattanooga, TN (see the Kentucky and Tennessee timeline). Another concern to the Confederates was that Grant was moving his army to Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee River. Added to this was that Buell could reach Grant and make a thrust into Mississippi itself. Johnston decides to merge his army with Beauregard’s and assault the Federals gathering at Pittsburg Landing (see the Shiloh timeline).

4 April, 1862: Foote’s flotilla arrives the assault can begin. The operation starts with a bombardment of Island No. 10 itself, but had no effect. That night, Foote sends USS Carondolet past Island No. 10, putting naval assets up river and down river of the island.

Meanwhile, Pope marches south to Ft. Pleasant, then onward to Riddles Point.

6 April, 1862: Pope crosses the river and placed himself in a position to block any evacuation from Island No. 10.

7 April, 1862: With USS Pittsburg joining Carondolet downstream, Foote orders another bombardment of the island. The Confederate commander orders an evacuation, but finds Union troops blocking his way out.

8 April, 1862: Island No. 10 surrenders to Federal forces.

The Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing) took place at the same time, resulting in the death of Johnston. Beauregard took command of both armies and retreated to Corinth, MS.

11 April, 1862: Halleck arrived at Pittsburg Landing and assumes command over Grant’s forces. He then proceeds to gather a larger force together for an assault on the rail center of Corinth, and the destruction of Beauregard’s army. He gathers three armies together, Buell’s, Pope’s (who Halleck recalled from Island No. 10), and Major General George H. Thomas’ army.

While as all this was going on, at Ship Island, in the Gulf of Mexico off Gulfport, MS, another Federal force was being assembled for the assault on the Mississippi Delta and New Orleans. A fleet of warships under Farragut, a mortar fleet under Commodore David Porter, as well as Butler’s infantry, were ready to implement the plan.

18 April, 1862: The Federal force reaches the first objective on the way to New Orleans. About 75 miles below New Orleans, two forts, Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip, guard the main channel. They occupy opposite banks of the river and there is a heavy chain across the river to prevent a naval assault. Supporting this was a flotilla led by the ironclad vessel CSS Louisiana, as well as some converted steam transports.

19 April, 1862: Farragut begins constant bombardment of the two forts. This lasts all day, but Farragut is at a disadvantage; the forts are on hills, which allow plunging fore on the Federal warships. The placement of the forts also allowed a crossfire, while Farragut is stuck at the barrier chain. He decides that the chain has to go. The other problem he has are the forts themselves. They just might have to be taken by direct assault by Butler’s troops.

20 April, 1862: Two gunboats, the Pinola and the Itasca, are sent to the barrier in the middle of the night. Their crews, who volunteer for this dangerous mission, manage to cut the chain. The way is clear, but the forts are still a factor. What Farragut didn’t know (until a Confederate deserter gave him the information) was that the forts were heavily damaged by the 4000 shells sent their way.

Farragut decides he will make a run past the forts.

23 April, 1862; Farragut arranges his warships in two columns, one will hit Fort Jackson while the other hits Fort St. Philip.

24 April, 1862: 3:30 a.m.: Farragut begins the sail his fleet up the Mississippi past the two Confederate forts. Stealth was attempted but lookouts at the forts soon see them. Both forts open fire and pummeled the Federal fleet. Despite several of the ships being hit, Farragut gets his fleet past the forts and proceeds to engage the Confederate flotilla, which also included the ironclad ram CSS Manassas. A fierce fight ensued and the defenders are broken up, with Manassas forced aground.

Farragut orders his force to stop about 18 miles from New Orleans. He gathers his vessels, as well as the troop transports carrying Butler’s men.

25 April, 1862: With the Federals approaching, Confederate Major General Mansfield Lovell, the commander of the New Orleans defenses, orders his troops to evacuate.

28 April, 1862: Farragut arrives at New Orleans and begins ferrying Butler’s troops ashore. Both Butler and Farragut come ashore, to a very hostile reception by the locals. They raise the US flag over the Customs Hall, the Mint, and City Hall. They will then meet with New Orleans officials to arrange the surrender of the city.

1 May, 1862: New Orleans is formally surrendered and occupied by Federal troops. This removes a major port and shipbuilding facility from Confederate control.

Meanwhile, to the north, Halleck was advancing with his enlarged army at a very glacial pace. They would march several miles, then stop and entrench. Little did they know that Beauregard was at Corinth and very reluctant to launch an offensive, as almost half of his men were sick.

9 May, 1862: Halleck’s army if finally into Mississippi and begins to close in on Corinth. Beauregard detaches part of his army and heads east to Farmington, where he hits Pope’s line. Pope is forced to pull back, but the Confederates do not follow.

Meanwhile, it has taken Halleck 26 days total to advance 20 miles (usually a day’s march).

25 May, 1862: Halleck finally has his entire force at Corinth. He too is battling with sickness amongst the troops as well as bad weather, but he manages to entrench his forces to the north and east of Corinth.

28 May, 1862: With all of his forces in place, Halleck orders Corinth shelled.

29 May, 1862: Beauregard orders his troops to evacuate Corinth and head south.

30 May, 1862: Halleck occupies Corinth. This takes a major rail center away from the Confederates.

Up the Mississippi, the Union advance south continues; by mid April, the Union forces are closing in on Pillow, a Confederate fort protecting the northern approaches to Memphis and just north on Plum Run Bend. They begin a bombardment which lasts for a month.

10 May, 1862: The Confederate flotilla defending Memphis, TN, launches a surprise attack on the Federal flotilla at Plum Run Bend, Two Federal ironclads are sunk.

5 June, 1862: After all that bombardment, the Confederates evacuate Fort Pillow, leaving Memphis open for attack. Federal river forces quickly take advantage of the situation and sail to Memphis.

6 June, 1862: The Federal flotilla reaches Memphis and engages the defense fleet that attacked them on 10 May. This time the result is different. Within an hour, seven of the eight Confederate gunboats are sunk to a Federal loss of three wounded sailors. At noon, Memphis surrenders to the Union.

This gives the Federals control of the Mississippi from Cairo, IL to Memphis TN.

18 May, 1862: After securing New Orleans, Farragut sailed his fleet up the Mississippi river to Vicksburg and demand the surrender of the city, which is refused.

19 May, 1862: Farragut decides to add a little persuasion and orders the city shelled. He continues this until 27 June, but the Confederates do not buckle.

28 May, 1862: Farragut decides that he has had enough and orders his fleet to sail north past the Vicksburg defenses. At 2:00 a.m. he orders the fleet to move.

4:00 a.m.: Confederate gunners see the fleet sailing past and opens fire. Despite the heavy fire, by 6:00 a.m. most of the fleet id past the defenses and around the bend at De Soto Point. Past there, they meet the Union flotilla coming down from Memphis on 1 July.

However, the Confederates were not through yet.

15 July, 1862: A secretly built ironclad, the CSS Arkansas, came down the Yazoo River and engaged several Union vessels, damaging the USS Carondolet. The Confederates then sailed into the Mississippi, engaging several of Farragut’s ships before reaching the safety of the Vicksburg river docks.

24 July, 1862: Farragut realizes that Vicksburg could not be taken by naval assault. That and the fact that many of his crews were getting sick, he orders his fleet to run past the Vicksburg defenses and return to New Orleans.

The Union almost had the entire Mississippi River in their hands. Only a section from Vicksburg to Port Hudson was still in Confederate control.

Farragut would be promoted to Rear Admiral on 16 July 1862, the first in UN Navy history. He would command the West Gulf Blockading Squadron and would lead the assault on Mobile Bay, AL in 1864.

Halleck would be brought to Washington to assume duties as Army Commander-in Chief, which he holds until 1864.

Grant, who Halleck wanted to replace, would assume command of Union forces in the West, take Vicksburg, and then assume command of all Union armies, effectively becoming Halleck’s boss.

Butler would make a mess of his administration of New Orleans, be brought back East, and finally lose his command in 1864 after failing to capture Fort Fisher, NC.

Beauregard would serve in various commands for the remainder of the war.

Tullahoma and Chattanooga

2007-05-08T11:45:00.000-06:00

Dates: 24 June to 9 September, 1863

Commanders:

Union: Major General William Rosecrans, commanding the Army of the Cumberland.

Confederate: General Braxton Bragg

Prelude; there has not been much movement since the Union victory at Murfreesboro at the beginning of 1863. As a matter of fact, they have been sitting there for half the year. Meanwhile, Bragg has been sitting at Tullahoma waiting for Rosecrans to move.

Rosecrans had two good reasons to stay; first, his army denied Bragg access to the central Tennessee farmland, which could feed his army, and second, the time was necessary for rest and refit if the Federals were going to achieve the next goal, the city of Chattanooga.

If the Union can seize Chattanooga, it would give them not only a river and rail center, but a springboard to push the war into Georgia. Rosecrans had the mandate to do this, but he was waiting for the right time to do this.

Rosecrans has 40,000 infantry and 7000 cavalry. Bragg has 30,000 infantry and 13,000 cavalry.

The Confederates have part of their force at Shelbyville, while the rest manned defenses at Tullahoma.

23 June, 1863: Rosecrans orders his army on the road. He sends his cavalry south to Shelbyville while two Union corps head directly for Tullahoma. Another corps swings east to McMinnville. They are moving despite torrential rain storms.

The cavalry feint towards Shelbyville worked, the Confederates there do not move.

Within days, the Federals were through Hoover’s Gap, flanking the Southerners and forcing Bragg to fall back on Tullahoma.

29 June, 1863: As Rosecrans forces approach Tullahoma, he orders another feint towards the town.

30 June, 1863: Bragg, seeing his right flank was about to get hit, orders a withdrawal, all the way to Chattanooga.

The practically bloodless victory was overshadowed by events in Pennsylvania and Mississippi, but it was a Union victory nonetheless. Rosecrans devoted some time to consolidating his gains, which placed another chunk of Tennessee under Federal control.
After filing his reports with the War Department, Rosecrans was prodded to continue his advance. Plans are made for a two-pronged attack using the corps commanded by Major General Ambrose Burnside, presently at Lexington, KY.

16 August, 1863: Rosecrans leaves Tullahoma. He sends one corps to the east in a wide arc. The rest head straight for the Tennessee River.

21 August, 1863: Rosecrans’ army reaches the Tennessee River.

29 August, 1863: Rosecrans sends his Cavalry and XX Corps (Major General Alexander McCook) into Alabama, and then into Georgia, making a feint forwards Atlanta.

1 September, 1863, The main body of the Army of the Cumberland crosses the Tennessee River with XXI Corps (Major General Thomas Crittenden) heading for Chattanooga and XIV Corps (Major General George Thomas) taking the center between Crittenden and McCook.

2 September, 1863: Burnside’s corps capture Knoxville, TN, severing the rail line to Virginia from Chattanooga.

Bragg knows he is being outflanked, but is counting on the mountainous terrain to slow the Federals down.

Rosecrans convinced Bragg that the attack would come from upstream, instead, it is coming from downstream.

5 September, 1863: Rosecrans decides to send his army in three columns through gaps in the mountains in order to his Chattanooga.

6 September, 1863: Bragg orders Chattanooga evacuated, effectively leaving it open for Federal occupation.

9 September, 1863: As Rosecrans captures Chattanooga, he orders a pursuit of Bragg, believing that the Confederates were easy pickings. Bragg has other ideas. Meanwhile, seeing the situation in the southeast Confederacy deteriorating, CS President Jefferson Davis, a friend of Bragg’s, orders General Robert E. Lee to detach one corps from his Army of Northern Virginia and send them to reinforce Bragg. The corps of Lieutenant General James Longstreet is sent.

The stage is now set for another titanic battle. The trap that Bragg is planning will result in the Battle of Chickamauga.

Kentucky and Tennessee, 1862

2007-05-08T11:44:00.000-06:00

Dates: 10 January to 18 June, 1862

Commanders:

Union: Major General Don Carlos Buell

Confederate: General Albert Sidney Johnston

Prelude: As the Southern States were seceding in 1861, “Border States,” which were Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware each took time to sort out their loyalties. Missouri had recently fought a series of battles and skirmishes but was firmly in the Union camp. It took an intervention be US President Lincoln to keep Maryland. There was no question about Delaware’s remaining in the Union. The wild card in all of this was Kentucky. This was a state where Slavery was legal, but wanted no part in the breakaway that was going on. Even so, they also wanted no part in raising troops for putting down their Southern brothers. As war clouds gathered, Kentucky declared itself neutral, refusing to officially raise troops for the North or South. Of course, that did not stop people from doing so. One of the well known bodies of Confederate soldiers in the Civil War was called the “Orphan Brigade,” made up of Kentuckians and attached to the Army of Tennessee. This brigade, when forced out of the state, never returned for the remainder of the war. Another unit, the 1st Kentucky (Union) Regiment had already seen action in Virginia.

The official stance of Kentucky changed when, on 4 September, 1861, Confederate troops under Major General Leonidas Polk seized Columbus, KY. The state officially allied themselves with the Union, despite an attempt by pro-Confederates to form a secessionist government. Articles of Secession were even voted on, but could not be enacted. The state would be spilt for the remainder of the war, but the Administration of US President Abraham Lincoln was pleased that as least half of Kentucky was on his side.

For the Confederacy, it was a blunder that presented an opportunity. Possession of Kentucky would give the CSA a natural border on the Ohio River as well as access to two major rivers (the second being the Mississippi) for trade and travel. Goods and services would flow down river to New Orleans, LA and then to the world. CS President Jefferson Davis saw this as advantageous to the new nation. He was also optimistic; he authorized a star on the Confederate First National flag to represent Kentucky.

Since Polk had already entered the state, it seemed good sense to put an entire army unto Kentucky. Johnston was selected to command Confederate forces in the West, with a mandate to both protect the Lower South (Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee) and secure Kentucky.

Johnston was a Regular Army officer who resigned his commission while serving in California. His past service also included the Texas War of Independence and the Mexican War.

On the other side, the goals of the Federals in the area became clear; keep Kentucky secured so that operations into Tennessee could be mounted. Part of that was already done when Union forces took Paducah and Louisville. The motivation to get into Tennessee was that despite the state being admitted into the CSA, the state was actually split, with the western half pro-Confederate and the eastern half pro-Union. There was a lot of sectarian violence taking place as clashes and raids took place.

As 1861 ended and 1862 began, there was already a lot of maneuvering. Confederates under Brigadier General Humphrey Marshall had been in eastern Kentucky since 10 December, 1861, and was camped in the town of Prestonsburg. To the west, at Beech Grove, there was another force under Brigadier General Felix Zollicoffer encamped.

The Federals countered this when Buell sent a brigade under Colonel James Garfield from Louisa to Paintsville to counter Marshall. Another Union force, under Brigadier General George Thomas was sent to Somerset to counter Zollicoffer’s movements.

A Confederate force, under Major General George Crittenden, established themselves at Beech Grove, on the Cumberland River.

10 January, 1862: Battle of Middle Creek: West of Prestonsburg, Garfield formed his four regiments in line formation and pressed in their assault through wooded hills. Marshall’s three regiments held their own for a while but was soon forced to pull back. At the end of the day, both sides pulled back, each claiming victory. Garfield pulled into Prestonsburg to regroup, Marshall marched all the way to Virginia, effectively giving eastern Kentucky to the Union.

To the west, Thomas was ordered to march on Crittenden’s camp and drive them across the Cumberland.

At Beech Grove, both Crittenden and Zollicoffer were camped on a bend in the Cumberland River called Logan’s Cross Roads. The river crossing was their only way of retreat if Federal troops arrived. Still it offered a base in order to launch operations into central Kentucky. There was a slight problem, the Cumberland was in flood due to heavy rains, so crossing the river was problematic at best.

17 January, 1862: Thomas’ troops reach a spot near Logan’s Cross Roads and set up camp. Crittenden sees an opportunity to disrupt the Federal’s plans.

19 January, 1862: Battle of Logan’s Cross Roads: Crittenden marched his troops all night in order to be in a good position to hit Thomas. At dawn, troops of the 15th MS encountered a picket line manned by the 10th IN. For the next hour, the Indianans held off assaults by three Confederate regiments. Two additional Union arrived to support the Indianans, but when the ammunition ran out, the Federals were forces to give ground. As that was happening, while the Confederates were closing in, Colonel S. S. Fry of the 4th KY (Union) fired his revolver into the mass on Confederates. The round hits Zollicoffer, killing him. Afterwards, the fighting became so close that at one point, Union and Confederates were struggling over a single fence.

Thomas orders artillery brought up and soon begins pounding the Confederate formations. Thomas then sends in a brigade to hit the enemy on the flank. This breaks Crittenden’s forces and what started out to be an orderly retreat was turned into a rout. The Confederates make for the riverbank while Thomas’ artillery continues pounding them.

Thomas planned to finish off Crittenden by an assault, but the Confederates managed to cross the Cumberland River that night, effectively ending the battle. They march out of Kentucky altogether and finally stopped at Gainsboro, TN.

It took a few months to rest and refit the Union forces in eastern Kentucky, as well as consolidate their gains. Most of Kentucky was now firmly in Federal hands. Plans were now being made to take the offensive into Tennessee.

11 April, 1862: A division under Union Brigadier General George Morgan left London, KY and marched toward Cumberland Ford, with plans to use that area as a spring board to capture Cumberland Gap, a natural route into Tennessee.

As the Federals reached the Ford, word reached Morgan that the Confederates had fortified the Wilderness Road, once a trail for pioneers heading west to settle new lands. Now the road was seen as a strategic position for both sides. Morgan was not going to play to the Confederates tune. He decides to send one brigade as a diversion. They head across Tennessee, into Alabama, across the Tennessee River, and finally approaching Chattanooga, TN on 7 June.

6 June, 1862; Meanwhile, Morgan splits his remaining troops into two sections, sends one into Tennessee to Big Creek Gap, then turn east to Cumberland Gap. The second group goes through Rogers Gap, into Tennessee, and then covers the first group as Cumberland Gap is approached.

Meanwhile, the Confederates panicked when word of a Federal force was spotted at Chattanooga, shelling the city. Reinforcements were rushed to the area, but those who remained behind found more Federals coming from the west.

17 June, 1862: The Confederate commander at Cumberland Gap orders the gap abandoned, falling back into Tennessee.

18 June, 1862: Morgan and his Federals occupy Cumberland Gap, now a natural invasion route into Tennessee.

The feint against Chattanooga worked. There was no longer an organized Confederate army in Kentucky, and eastern Tennessee was open to invasion. Western Tennessee was already being penetrated by Federal troops, as evident by the Union victories at Forts Henry and Donelson in February, 1862.

Even though Federal troops got close, it would be another year before Chattanooga wound be in Federal hands.

Johnston had his job cut out for him.

The country must now be roused to make the greatest effort that it will be called upon to make during the war. No matter what the sacrifice may be, it must be made, and without loss of time…All the resources of the Confederacy are now needed for the defense of Tennessee.---General Albert S. Johnston.

Colonel Garfield would be promoted to Brigadier General after Middle Creek. He would enter politics after the war and would become the 20th President of the United States. He was assassinated in 1881 by a failed office seeker.

Marshall would not receive another command and briefly left the Confederate Army. After returning to serve in the Army of Tennessee for a while, he went to Richmond to practice law, soon being elected to the Confederate Congress as a representative of a Kentucky district. After the war he resumed law practice and died in 1867.

Morgan was forced to pull back in the face of General Braxton Bragg’s invasion of Kentucky, managing to pull his troops into northern Kentucky. He served in West Virginia and Vicksburg before resigning his commission in 1863 because he was not in favor of the Union Army enlisting African-Americans as troops. Post-war he served as a Representative from Ohio. He died in 1893.

Buell would go on to command the Army of the Ohio, being involved in the Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing, TN). He was replaced after Bragg’s invasion of Kentucky and after being assigned to an out of the way post, he resigned in 1864. After the war he became a businessman. He died in 1898.

Johnston would remain in command of Confederate troops until his death at Pittsburg Landing.

The Peninsula Campaign, 1862

2007-05-07T11:55:00.000-06:00

Dates: 4 April to 16 June, 1862

Commanders:

Union: Major General George McClellan, commanding the Army of the Potomac.

Confederate: General Joseph Johnston, commanding Confederate forces defending Richmond, VA.

Prelude: It has been about three quarters of a year since the Union was routed at Manassas, VA. Since that time, there was a complete reorganization of what was considered the main army of the Federal war effort. While there were successes in the field (Missouri, North Carolina, Pittsburg Landing, New Orleans, and other places, usually out West), the attitude in Union political circles was that the rebellion would not be crushed unless the Confederate capital, Richmond, VA, was in Federal hands. To this end McClellan, who had just achieved success in Western Virginia, was chosen to command the main army.

First thing McClellan did was give the army a name; The Army of the Potomac. Next, he began a program of training, organization, and supply, which turned what was a rabble into an army. Thing was, he was great at doing that, but when asked about when he was going to take the offensive, he was evasive. The press made good fun of the entire process, even printing a political cartoon that depicted McClellan and Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard, enjoying themselves while their troops hold parties and snowball fights. The cartoon was captioned “All Quiet on the Potomac.”

All this stemmed from McClellan’s main fault; he was overly cautious and was loathe to take chances. He wanted everything to be perfect before taking to the field. It seems that he forgot one of the maxims of war that was taught at West Point (he was second in the class of 1846), plans never survive first contact with the enemy. Even with pressure from US President Abraham Lincoln, McClellan did not want to move.

One possible reason was that McClellan relied not on his army’s intelligence section for information about the enemy, but had hired a civilian outfit, the Pinkerton Detective Agency, to get that information. McClellan also had a thing for inflating the estimates of the Confederate’s numbers. When the Spring of 1862 arrived, he had about 155,000 men at his command. He really believed that the Confederates had twice his numbers. The Confederates wished they had the numbers. He still refused to move when Northern newspapers were screaming, “ON TO RICHMOND.”

Finally, President Lincoln had enough.

27 January, 1862: Lincoln issues General War Order Number One, which ordered a general offensive for all Union armies on 22 February.
31 January, 1862: Lincoln followed this with Special War Order Number One, which ordered the Army of the Potomac to seize the railroads south of Manassas, and then move on Richmond.

McClellan was not having that. He had great disrespect for the President, calling him names such as “baboon” in letters to his wife. His disrespect was so great that one evening, when the President arrived to discuss plans with him, McClellan went to bed while Lincoln was in his sitting room.

McClellan had a plan of his own. He wanted to take his army to Fortress Monroe, at the tip of a peninsula formed between the James and York Rivers. He would than march up the peninsula to a position where he could make the assault on Richmond.

In spending time lobbying for the new plan, while a Federal force under soon to be promoted to Major General Ulysses S. Grant was taking Forts Henry and Donelson in Tennessee, McClellan, who also was made General-in-Chief on the Union Armies, was still in Washington.

7 March, 1862: McClellan finally makes a move, sending some of his army into Northern Virginia and headed for Manassas.

8 March, 1862: President Lincoln agrees to McClellan’s plan (anything to get him moving) with one condition, some of his army must remain to protect Washington.

McClellan decides that he would take II Corps, under Major General Charles Sumner, III Corps, under Major General Samuel Heintzelman, V Corps, under Major General Fitz-John Porter, and VI Corps, under Major General William Franklin, with him. He wanted to take I Corps, under Major General Irwin McDowell, but that corps was ordered to defend Washington.

17 March, 1862: McClellan has his troops begin boarding transports for the trip to Fortress Monroe.

During all of this, President Lincoln decided relieve McClellan of the pressure of handling the entire Union war effort, he declares the position of General-in Chief be set aside. McClellan only has command of the Army of the Potomac and nothing else.

2 April, 1862: McClellan arrived at Fortress Monroe, joining the 112,000 men of his army.

Opposing him was a Confederate force of about 70,000 under Johnston. About 17,000 of them manned an eight-mile long trench near Yorktown. The rest were near Richmond, but were being gathered together, now that Johnston knows where McClellan was at.

With all the troops, equipment, and supplies gathered, the Army of the Potomac was ready to take the offensive.
4 April, 1862: McClellan sends three corps up several roads toward the Confederate line.

The next day, they reach the Confederate defensive line. The defenders, commanded by Major General John Magruder, put up a spirited fight, so much that when word got back to McClellan, he ordered siege lines dug.

Amazing, after a brief fight, McClellan felt he was outnumbered, even though he was enjoying a 10-1 superiority. He also received reports of massed artillery batteries that could slaughter his men. So he decides to siege. This would only give Johnston time to prepare a proper defense.

2 May, 1862: After nearly a month besieging and trading shots with the Confederates, McClellan decides it is time to resume the offensive.

Johnston sees that a general Union attack would hurt his forces, so he orders his army to pull back to a more defensible position.

3 May, 1863: Johnston’s army pulls out of Yorktown.

4 May, 1862: Yorktown is occupied by McClellan’s army. When they moved in, it was found that all those cannon facing them were large logs painted black to look like guns.

While probing beyond Yorktown, Union forces run into a strong rearguard, consisting of the divisions of Major Generals James Longstreet and Daniel H. Hill.

McClellan’s vanguard clashes with Johnston’s rearguard at Williamsburg, but was not able to bring on a general engagement. McClellan sends cavalry to see what was in front of him, but they are stopped at Fort Magruder, east of Williamsburg. The cavalry hold until a division under Brigadier General Joseph Hooker arrived.

5 May, 1862: Meanwhile, President Lincoln and Secretary of the Treasure Samuel Chase depart Washington for Fortress Monroe on a fact finding mission. It seems that McClellan was not sending many reports.

Battle of Williamsburg: At 7:30 a.m. Hooker launches an attack on Fort Magruder. Severe fighting continued for several hours as Union reinforcements arrived. Brigadier General Winfield Scott Hancock, commanding some of the reinforcements, fakes a withdrawal, turned around, sent a masses musket volley, and then a bayonet charge that broke the Confederate line. Late that afternoon, McClellan arrived on the scene and amazingly ordered a halt, allowing the Confederates to get away. Union losses were over 2100 while the Confederates lost 1700.

McClellan not wants to try something different; upon hearing that CSS Virginia was up the James River, he decides to head up the York.

7 May, 1862: VI Corps is sent up the York River to Eltham’s Landing. Upon disembarking, they find a Confederate force under Brigadier General John B. Hood there, who put up a strong enough defense to hold Franklin and give Johnston tome to pull back further.

9 May, 1862: McClellan was called back to Fortress Monroe to confer with President Lincoln. One positive thing about the operation was that the Confederates abandoned the Norfolk Navy Yard when word of Johnston’s retreat arrived. CSS Virginia was sailed up the river to near Drewry’s Bluff in order to assist in defending Richmond.

11 May, 1862: CSS Virginia, unable to move up the James due to its large draft (remember, this was once the US Navy frigate Merrimac), is destroyed rather than let it fall into Federal hands. The cannon were removed beforehand and moved to Fort Darling at Drewry’s Bluff.

15 May, 1862: Fort Darling is attacked by Federal troops, backed by a fleet of gunboats that include USS Monitor, but the Union force is repulsed.

Johnston’s army continued to fall back toward Richmond, causing a panic in the capital. Preparations were made for the evacuation of the Confederate Government.

McClellan, still advancing, was still badgering Washington for reinforcements, especially McDowell’s corps, who were at Fredericksburg and preparing to advance on Richmond themselves.

Thing was, Washington was occupied with Confederate Major General Thomas Jackson’s campaign in the Shenandoah Valley and could not send McClellan anything. He just had to make do.

McClellan decided to wait until reinforcements were sent to him.

17 May, 1862: Johnston arrives in Richmond and prepare to defend the city.

25 May, 1862: President Lincoln was tired of McClellan’s lack of movement and gives him a choice, attack Richmond or defend Washington.

McClellan decides to act.

27 May,1862: Battle of Hanover Court House: McClellan sends Porter’s corps to the north of Richmond and hit the Confederate left flank. At Hanover Court House, they meet the Confederate defensive line. After an assault, they pull back and porter orders a pursuit. One brigade is sent to cut rail and telegraph lines, but is his by a large Confederate force. Porter soon doubles back and manages to rout the defenders.

Despite the loss at Hanover Court House, Johnston has concentrated his forces east of Richmond and is ready to take the offensive. McClellan’s army has supply lines stretching back to Fortress Monroe, making him vulnerable.

31 May, 1862: Battle of Fair Oaks: The Army of the Potomac is straddled over the Chickahominy River, to the south are Heintzelman’s corps, as well as IV Corps, under Major General Erasmus Keyes. The rest of the army is to the north. They are divided by a river that was flooded by recent storms. Johnston decides to take advantage of that. It also helped that McDowell’s corps was diverted to help with the operation in the Shenandoah Valley. Johnston sends Hill’s and Longstreet’s divisions to hit the Union lines at a spot known as Seven Pines (another name for the battle). Hill arrives there first but Longstreet is delayed. Not wanting to wait, Hill launches his assault and drives the Federals back. The line is reinforced and the confederate attack is soon stalled. Another Confederate attack, this time to the north of Seven Pines and led by Brigadier General G. W. Smith, is also stopped by timely Union reinforcements. Sumner’s men found a rickety bridge across the Chickahominy and managed to cross. Stopping the Confederates, Sumner orders an assault of their own.

During this fighting, Johnston was nearby, observing the fighting. Also in the area was CS President Jefferson Davis and his military advisor, General Robert E. Lee. As evening approached, a Federal artillery shell exploded near Johnston’s position, wounding him severely. President Davis orders Lee to take over until Johnston’s condition was assessed. The fighting died out when darkness came.

1 June, 1862; On the same day that Lee is formally given command of the army defending Richmond, Smith (not knowing about Lee’s appointment) attacks Sumner’s positions at Fair Oaks. The Federals bring up artillery and manage to hold the Confederates until Hooker’s division could come up. Hooker attacks and succeeds in driving Smith back. The assault, however, spreads the Federals all over the place and a pursuit could not take place.

McClellan finally gets to a position in which Richmond could be assaulted directly. He could even see the spires of the churches there. But he stopped. He wanted to gather his army together.

All this did was give Lee time. Several things did fall into place for him. Jackson was finished with his campaign, tying up 60,000 Federals. Lee ordered Jackson to join him. Next , Brigadier General J.E.B. Stuart’s cavalry rode around McClellan’s army from 12-15 June, gathering intelligence and disrupting the Union supply lines.

Lee was ready to take the fight back to McClellan.

His army was now called the Army of Northern Virginia.

What happened next was called the Seven Day’s Battles.

For now, Richmond was safe.

Soldierspeak

2007-05-01T18:47:00.000-06:00

It is amazing that terms used in speaking change from year to year, let alone from a century and a half ago. The following terms were used by soldiers, and to some of us today, will seem quite funny. Terms are taken from The Encyclopedia of Civil War Usage, by Webb Garrison and Cheryl Garrison. The following are terms used by Union and Confederate soldiers:

Acknowledge the corn—confess to a hoax.

Action—same as battle.

Advertise—to make something public.

Advice—information that was gathered by scouts, spies, or cavalry reconnaissance.

Affair—a small engagement, such as a skirmish.

Aggregate—to gather scattered units into a formation, usually done in the heat of battle.

Ague—an illness marked by chills and fever.

Ambulance—a two or four wheeled wagon used to transport the wounded to the field hospital.

Amnesty—pardon for soldiers who were either deserters or otherwise convicted of a military offense. Offered to Confederates who took the Oath of Allegiance to the Union.

Amuse—tactic of keeping an enemy occupied without bringing on a general engagement.

Annoy—to harass the enemy.

Appreciate—to understand.

Ardent—an enthusiastic person.

Argee—bad liquor.

Army Grayback—lice.

Artificer—a skilled mechanic.

Avalanche—a derisive term for a two wheeled ambulance.

Awkward squad—new troops yet to see battle.

Baby walker—the first shot before an artillery bombardment. Usually referred to a ranging round.

Bait—feed a horse.

Bailed Hay—referred to a block of dried and compressed mixed vegetables issued to soldiers to liven up the diet.

Band Box Regiments—Union regiments that did a lot of drill, but didn’t see battle until late in the war. Its usual reference was to the “Heavy Artillery” regiments that were formed from the units that were stationed at the forts surrounding Washington. Most of them did not keep that reference for long.

Baptism of fire—the first time a soldier sees battle.

Bark Juice—hard liquor.

Barrack Hack—one who avoided drilling. Also referred to a prostitute.

Barrel Drill—punishment which consisted of standing on an open barrel holding a plaque announcing his offense.

Barrel Jacket of Shirt—punishment in which the soldier wore a barrel.

BC—stood for Brigade Commissary. Usually stamped on crates of hardtack.

Beat--a sentry’s post. Also referred to a shirker.

Beat up—to dislodge an enemy from a position.

Bee Gun—a hat with a conical top.

Beehive—a knapsack.

Beeves—cattle.

Belly Robber—an army cook.

Bermuda Bacon—this was meat purchased in the North, sent to Bermuda, then transferred to a Confederate blockade runner, and then on to a Confederate port.

Big ticket—a soldier’s honorable discharge.

Bird-cage—a gambling game where players bet on the result of a roll of three dice.

Birdie—a prisoner of war.

Bite the bullet—to do a distasteful task.

Blackberry Picker—a straggler.

Blackjack—a club weighted at one end. Also a drink made by mixing molasses and rum.

Blenker—to forage.

Blizzard—heavy musket fire.

Blueback—Confederate currency.

Bluebelly—a Union soldier.

Blue Mass—this was a poisonous mixture of mercury, chalk, licorice, and honey used by Civil War surgeons.

Bog-trotter—a soldier of Irish background.

Boiled Rye—a Confederate coffee substitute.

Bone Butter—a butter substitute commonly used in prisoner of war camps.

Bone Yard—the prison cemetery.

Borrowed—referred to theft, foraging, or pillaging.

Bought the Farm—died in battle.

Bowlegs—a cavalryman.

Boys of the sod—Irish immigrants.

Bread Bag—a rubberized haversack.

Brevet Horse—an Army mule.

Buck—punishment in which the offender was bent over a log and whipped.

Buck and Gag—punishment in which the offender was sat down with his knees to his chin. Then the hands were tied around his shins. Finally a gag was tied to his mouth.

Bullpen—an enclosed part of a stockade where prisoners were kept.

Bully—a term of affirmation.

Bully Soup—hot cereal made from corn meal and crushed hardtack.

Bumblebee—bullet.

Bummer—a forager. Made popular during Sherman’s March to the Sea.

Bummers Roost—any place safe from the heat of battle.

Busby—an elaborate bearskin headpiece.

Bushwhacker—Confederate guerillas.

Busthead—homemade (or campmade) liquor.

Butcher’s Bill—the causality list.

Buzzard—a straggler who was also a thief.

Cabbaging—to steal.

Camp Canard—gossip.

Camp Fever—Typhoid Fever.

Camp Followers—non-military personnel following an army in the field.

Canaan—Heaven, the Hereafter.

Candlestick—a bayonet.

Cap-a-pie—informal dress.

Cards—small loaves of cornbread that were the size of playing cards.

Carpet soldier—militia units that managed to avoid front line service.

Carte-de-visite—a small card with a picture.

Cashier—a dishonorable discharge.

Cattle—what Southern soldiers called their Northern counterparts.

Change one’s breath—to drink hard liquor.

Cheese Knife—an officer’s sword.

Chicken Guts—braiding on an officer’s uniform.

Chicken Heart Disease—battle fatigue.

Chinch—Bedbugs.

Chit—paper currency issued within the army or even a separate unit.

Chuck-a-luck—a gambling game using dice.

Coffee Boiler—a straggler.

Company Bean Boiler—the cook.

Confederate Beef—mule meat.

Coosh—hardtack fried in bacon grease.

Corked in a bottle—a situation where movement was impossible.

Corncrackers—Kentuckians.

Corn dodgers—cornbread shaped into patties.

Cracker outfits—sutlers.

Crooked Shoe—Federal Army footwear fitted to a person’s feet. Due to the need to mass produce shoes for the Union, footwear was not shaped to a person’s right or left foot.

Cross on Confederate pontoons—to wade across a stream.

Cush—a dish made of fried cornmeal with stewed beef.

Dance—the battle.

Dandyfunk—stew made of hardtack, molasses, and salt pork.

Dead Cart-an ambulance.

Dead-head—a coward.

Deadwood—a coward.

Death Bells—hardtack.

Desecrated Vegetables— what the block of dried and compressed mixed vegetables issued to soldiers to liven up the diet were called.

Desiccated Vegetables— the block of dried and compressed mixed vegetables

Dispatched—killed.

Doodle—what some Southerners called Union soldiers.

Doughboy—what cavalrymen called infantrymen.

Down the line—an area of a town where the brothels were.

Doxy—a mistress.

Draw over the left---to steal.

Drum out—a dishonorable discharge.

Duff—a dish of flour and molasses.

Eat the dishrag—eating the piece of bread that was used to clean the gravy off a plate.

Elephant—combat. A soldier who experienced combat for the first was said to have “seen the elephant.”
Embalmed beef—canned beef.

Essence of coffee—perhaps the first instant coffee.

Faith paper—paper currency.

Faro-a card game.

Fast little trick—prostitute.

Feather-bed fighter—a soldier who managed to get the cushy jobs and avoided combat.

Ferryboat—term for a pair of shoes that could be worn on either foot.

Fire and Fall Back—vomit.

Forage—horse food.

Forage, to—to gather food from the countryside.

Forty Dead Men—a soldiers basic load of 40 cartridges.

Forty-rod—very bad whisky. Said to be lethal at forty rods.

French Leave—unauthorized leave in which the soldier returns.

Fresh Fish—new recruits or newcomers to a prisoner of war camp.

Frumenty—a dish of wheat bran, milk, and sugar.

Furlough—legal leave of absence.

Furniture—accoutrements.

Galoot--a replacement soldier

Galvanized Confederate—a Union soldier who defects to the Confederacy.

Galvanized Yankees—a Confederate soldier who defects to the Union.

Give the vermin parole—to get rid of body lice without killing them.

Go in search of his rights—a soldier who flees the battlefield.

Going down the line—going to a brothel.

Gold Brick—a slovenly soldier.

Goober Grabber—a soldier of North Carolina or Georgia.

Government livery—a uniform.

Grayback—a Confederate soldier.

Green Apple Quickstep—Diarrhea.

Greenback—Federal currency.

Green Troops—new soldiers with little or no training.

Gump—a fool.

Hardtack—a basic army ration made of flour and water and baked into three inch squares.

Hireling—a Southern term for Union soldiers.

Hish and Hash—a dish made of what food was available.

Hog and hominy—a term for Southern food.

Hog drivers—Tennesseans.

Holy Joe—a chaplain.

Hooker—a prostitute. Not attributed to Union Major General Joseph Hooker, but to the red light district of New York City.

Hop, Skip, and Jump—a two wheeled ambulance.

Horizontal Refreshment—sex.

How come you so—a alcoholic beverage.

Hunt gold—to be in combat for the first time.

Iron Doughnut—iron rails heated and twisted, rendering them unusable.

Jeff Davis’ Neckties-- iron rails heated and twisted, rendering them unusable.

Josh—a Confederate soldier from Arkansas.

Junk—Beef preserved by heavy amounts of salt. Practically inedible.

Katydid—inexperienced soldiers.

Lay-outs—Southerners who hid out to escape conscription.

Lead mine—a dead or wounded soldier with multiple wounds.

Leg case—desertion.

Let her go, Gallagher!!—fire with everything you got.

Lincoln coffee—Northern coffee (the real stuff).

Lincoln hirelings—Southern term for Union soldiers.

Lincoln pie—hardtack.

Lobscouse—a dish made of hardtack, vegetables, and meat.

Lobster Backs—US Marines.

Long Home—grave.

Loose Bowels—surgeon.

Lop-ears—Germans.

McClellan pie—hardtack.

Meet the Elephant—to go into battle for the first time.

Metal—courage.

Mossyback—draft dodger.

Mud Heads—Mississippians.

Mudscows—shoes.

Mud Sills—Confederate term for Union soldiers.

Mustered out-to be formally discharged, usually when a unit was too small to be combat effective and was disbanded. Also occurred when a soldier’s term of enlistment expired.
Nationals—Union soldiers.

Niddering—cowardly.

Oh-be-joyful—an alcoholic beverage.

Old Bull—salted horse meat.

Oldest—term for veterans in a unit.

Old Regular—a soldier who was in the Regular Army prior to the Civil War.

Open the Ball—start the battle.

Oysters—nothing to do with seafood. This was made with cornmeal, eggs, and butter.

Paper Collar Soldiers—soldiers on garrison duty in safe areas.

Peas on a trencher—call for breakfast.

Penny Packet—small quantities.

Pigeon Roost—sentry box on a wall or fence.

Police—to clean a camp area.

Pop-skull—illegal whiskey.

Possum Beer—homebrewed beverage made from persimmons.

Pumpkin Rind—Union Lieutenant.

Quick step—a fast march or diarrhea.

Rack—punishment in which an offender is tied to a wagon wheel.

Rag out—formal dress.

Ramrod Bread—bread made by plastering cornmeal on a ramrod and holding it over a fire.

Rations—food.

Razorback—a prisoner of war who was an informer.

Reb—Confederate soldier or civilian.

Rebel Conch—costal Floridian.

Rebel Rag—Confederate Flag.

Red-eye—bad whiskey.

Rodomontade—vain talk.

Robbers Row—where the sutlers set up their shops.

Rotgut—bad whiskey.

Sacred Dust—a corpse.

Salt—government rations.

Salt Horse—beef or port preserved by salting.

Salt Fish—veterans.

Sandlapper—South Carolinian.

Sauerkraut—German immigrant.

Sawbones—surgeon.

Scratch—test of character.

Scrip—money issued by sutlers for use at the issuers store.

Scuttlebutt—gossip.

Sea pie—has no seafood. It’s a mixture of meat and vegetables in a crust.

Secesh—Northern term for Southern soldiers and civilians.

Secession bread—bread made from rice flour.

See the elephant--to go into battle for the first time.

See the tiger-- to go into battle for the first time.

See Tick Coffee—a Confederate coffee substitute.

Shavetail—a Second Lieutenant.

Shebang—temporary hut of shelter.

Sheep Dip—bad whiskey.

Sheet Iron Crackers—hardtack.

Shellback—a veteran.

Shinplaster—paper currency.

Short-timer—a soldier whose term of enlistment was about to expire.

Sin away the day of grace—referred to Southerners in Federal occupied territory who still expressed loyalty to the Confederacy.

Sinks—latrines.

Skedaddler—soldier who flees the battlefield.

Skillygalee—a dish made by soaking hardtack in water and then frying it in bacon grease.

Skulker—soldier who made it a point to avoid combat every time.

Slow Bears—Union term for pigs.

Smell powder—to see action.

Snipe—to distract a person so that his food can be stolen.

Sold—deceived.

Somebody’s darling—an unidentified corpse.

Spitfire—musket or rifle.

Spondulics—a quantity of money.

Spotted papers—playing cards.

Squirrel Hunters—term for volunteers from rural Ohio.

Stoten-bottle—a soldier who refuses to reenlist.

Stove rat—a prisoner of war who hogged the stove for heat during winter.

Straggler—a soldier who purposely wanders off from his unit in order to avoid combat.
Sutler—a civilian licensed to sell goods to troops in camp.

Swallow the yellow dog—when a Confederate takes the Federal oath of Allegiance.

Taking a twist of the tiger—playing a game of chance.

Tangle foot—an alcoholic beverage.

Tap-the stump of an amputated leg.

Tar Heel—North Carolinian.

Tennessee high step—diarrhea.

Thumb Hanging—punishment in which the offender is hung by his thumbs.

Ticket to Dixie—someone who was drafted into service.

Tigers—Louisianans.

Toad Sticker—bayonet.

Toothpick—knife.

Tosspot—alcoholic.

Turkey driver—Federal Provost Marshall

Turnspit—useless person.

Uhlans—foragers.

Used up—a unit that was depleted by combat, sickness, or desertion.

Veal—a soldier that has not seen battle.

Wagon Dog—a soldier who fakes illness in order to avoid combat.

War Horse—a veteran.

Web-foot—a soldier without shoes.

Web-footed cavalry—what the cavalry called infantry.

Wet goods—whisky.

White glove boys—what Eastern Federal soldiers were called by Western soldiers.

Wolfhounds—Confederate soldiers.

Wolverines—Michiganders.

Yaller Dog—a coward.

Yankee—a Northern soldier or civilian. Also a Southern term for lying.

Yankee’s devils—Union artillery.

Yankee well—an escape tunnel.

Yellowback—novels sold be sutlers.

Yellow Belly—coward.

Yellow Hammer—Alabamian.

Yunnk—an unpopular individual.

Morgan’s Raid

2007-05-01T18:33:00.000-06:00

Dates: 11 June to 26 July, 1863.

Commanders:

Union: Major General Ambrose Burnside, commanding the Department of the Ohio.

Confederate: Brigadier General John H. Morgan, commanding an independent unit of cavalry.

Prelude: This was an operation that was eclipsed by the battles of Vicksburg, MS and Gettysburg, PA that were occurring at the same time. It did have the effect of drawing Federal resources from the other two battles in order to pursue him. This also struck fear into the Northern communities his men visited. The War was being taken into the North, into states thought safe from Confederate invasion.

Lieutenant General Braxton Bragg, commanding the Army of Tennessee, approved a plan to have Morgan invade Kentucky. He did not, however, give permission to cross the Ohio River, but gave carte blanche to all that could be done in Tennessee and Kentucky.

Morgan had other plans.

11 June, 1864: Morgan and 2500 troopers leave Sparta, TN and ride toward Kentucky.

They carried what supplies they could; food and horses could be foraged from nearby farms, ammunition could be taken from captured Federal stocks, and water from the many streams on the region.

They rode from Sparta, through Alexandria and Carthage, crossing the Kentucky line south of Tompkinsville.

1 July, 1863: Morgan’s troops have a brief engagement with Federal cavalry at Burkesville.

4 July, 1863: Battle of Tebbs Bend: After camping for the night near Campbellsville, Morgan and his men found a Federal force of about 200, the 25th MI, guarding a river crossing called Tebbs Bend that Morgan needed. With his force of 2500, he decides to attack. As his cavalry approached, the Federals opened fire. Morgan then had his artillery open fire. Soon he sent a truce rider with a surrender demand. It was refused. Perhaps the Union troops were encouraged by the fact that their sharpshooters were taking out Morgan’s artillery crews. For the next three hours, Morgan launched eight separate attacks, each one being repulsed. After a truce to collect his wounded, his force rode off in search of another crossing. He lost 35 killed and 45 wounded in the engagement.

Morgan did manage to cross the Green River after all and was soon at Lebanon, TN.
5 July, 1863: Battle of Lebanon: At the last minute, the 400 men of the 20th Kentucky Infantry saw Morgan’s men approaching and prepared to defend the town. Morgan first offered the lat the garrison surrender. That was refused. Morgan then launched his attack, pushing the Union troops through the town to the rail station. The Federals held out for six hours, but when Morgan started setting fire to nearby buildings, things soon became untenable. In the last Confederate assault, Morgan’s younger brother, Lieutenant Thomas Morgan, was killed. The Union garrison was finally captured and released on parole.

Morgan continued to head north, until reaching Brandenburg, on the Ohio River.

7 July, 1863: Morgan sent off a few detachments to confuse the Federals as to his true intentions. An advance force captured a few boats and waited while Morgan’s main force approached, destroying rail lines and bridges as he went.

8 July, 1863: Using the captured boats, Morgan and his troops cross into Indiana, in violation of General Bragg’s orders.

After crossing into Indiana, Morgan sought out the local Copperhead group for assistance. The Copperheads were pro-Confederate Northerners who’s main aim was to derail the Union war effort. This group, however, decided to provide no help to Morgan.

Morgan’s troops move across Indiana, wrecking rail lines, bridges, and depots, in short, causing havoc and panic.

Indiana Governor Oliver Morton ordered the call up of militia to defend the state, hoping to slow the Confederates long enough for Federal troops from the Army of the Ohio, who was at that time engaged in the Tullahoma Campaign. Burnside did organize some troops from local garrisons. But Morgan was proving to be slippery, as he diverted to the north.

9 July, 1863: Battle of Corydon, IN: Morgan encountered a small Union force while approaching the town. Another brother, Colonel Richard Morgan, launched an attack which had the Union militiamen flanked within the hour. Morgan captured the town and ransomed some cash and supplies in exchange for leaving. At nearby farms, horses were taken and a Lutheran minister, who owned one of the farms, was killed while resisting.

10 July, 1863: Morgan reaches the town of Vienna, where the rail depot was burned.

11 July, 1863: Morgan loses some of his men when they were captured by troops of the 73rd IN and 5th US Infantry.

12 July, 1863: Morgan’s troops enter Salem, where the depot was burned and the local stores looted.

Morgan then headed east, with Ohio in his sights.

13 July, 1863: Morgan and his now shrinking force crosses into Ohio, but Federal cavalry is pursuing.

They soon sidestepped Burnside’s scratch force (considering the type of commander Burnside was, it was not a surprise). They proceeded to destroy rail lines, bridges, and supply depots.

Fatigue was taking over Morgan’s men, supplies were short and there was still Federal cavalry after them. Morgan decides to head for the southern tip of Ohio and cross back into Kentucky.

Burnside actually guesses right about Morgan’s intentions and sent troops into the same area.

18 July, 1863; Morgan and his force reach Buffington Island, on the Ohio River. While scouting for a crossing, which was difficult because the river was swollen by recent rains, Federal cavalry showed up, trapping Morgan’s force between then and the river. Morgan orders his group to the north, but everything came unraveled. Over half of the Confederate force was captured near the town of Portland, while Morgan and the rest escaped.

Morgan followed the river north, hoping to find a crossing, even if it took him into West Virginia.

26 July, 1863: The fortunes of war finally ran out for Morgan, as he and his remaining force was cornered by Union cavalry, first at Salineville and finally at West Point, where Morgan was finally compelled to surrender.

The officers were taken to the Ohio State Penitentiary at Columbus, while the enlisted were sent to Camp Douglas, near Chicago, IL.

This effectively ended Morgan’s Raid.

27 November, 1863: Morgan and six others tunneled out of the penitentiary and ran for Kentucky. Morgan and four of them succeeded.

Morgan was given other commands in Tennessee. He was killed on 4 September, 1864 at Greenville, TN while attempting to escape from a Federal raid.

Morgan’s Raid accomplished the following:

6000 Union troops and militia captures and paroled.

34 Bridges destroyed.

Rail lines cut in 60 places.
Thousands of dollars of supplies looted.

Thousands of horses stolen (2500 in Ohio alone).

4375 homes and business raided.

Ohio taxpayers paid $600,000 to repair public property and another $200,000 to pay the wages of Ohio militiamen.

It was called the Great Raid in the South.

In the end it did delay, but not stop the Union progress in Tennessee.